The effects of aggregation and protein corona on the cellular internalization of iron oxide nanoparticles.

Engineered inorganic nanoparticles are essential components in the development of nanotechnologies. For applications in nanomedicine, particles need to be functionalized to ensure a good dispersibility in biological fluids. In many cases however, functionalization is not sufficient: the particles become either coated by a corona of serum proteins or precipitate out of the solvent. In the present paper, we show that by changing the coating of iron oxide nanoparticles from a low-molecular weight ligand (citrate ions) to small carboxylated polymers (poly(acrylic acid)), the colloidal stability of the dispersion is improved and the adsorption/internalization of iron toward living mammalian cells is profoundly affected. Citrate-coated particles are shown to destabilize in all fetal-calf-serum based physiological conditions tested, whereas the polymer coated particles exhibit an outstanding dispersibility as well as a structure devoid of protein corona. The interactions between nanoparticles and human lymphoblastoid cells are investigated by transmission electron microscopy and flow cytometry. Two types of nanoparticle/cell interactions are underlined. Iron oxides are found either adsorbed on the cellular membranes, or internalized into membrane-bound endocytosis compartments. For the precipitating citrate-coated particles, the kinetics of interactions reveal a massive and rapid adsorption of iron oxide on the cell surfaces. The quantification of the partition between adsorbed and internalized iron was performed from the cytometry data. The results highlight the importance of resilient adsorbed nanomaterials at the cytoplasmic membrane.

Interaction of CD82 tetraspanin proteins with HTLV-1 envelope glycoproteins inhibits cell-to-cell fusion and virus transmission.

The entry of retroviruses into their target cell involves interactions between the virus envelope glycoproteins and their cellular receptors, as well as accessory ligand-receptor interactions involving adhesion molecules that can also participate in fusion. We have studied the contribution of CD82 proteins to the transmission of the human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 (HTLV-1), which is greatly dependent on cell-to-cell contacts. CD82 proteins belong to a class of cell surface molecules, the tetraspanins, that can act as molecular facilitators in cellular adhesion processes. The coexpression of CD82 proteins with HTLV-1 envelope glycoproteins resulted in marked inhibition of syncytium formation, whereas CD82 proteins had no effect on syncytium formation induced by human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) envelope proteins. The presence of CD82 proteins also inhibited cell-to-cell transmission of HTLV-1. Coimmunoprecipitation and cocapping experiments showed that CD82 associates with HTLV-1 envelope glycoproteins, both within the cell and at the cell surface. Finally, whereas the intracellular maturation of HTLV-1 glycoproteins was not modified by the presence of CD82 proteins, HTLV-1 protein coproduction delayed the intracellular maturation of CD82 proteins. There thus seems to be a reciprocal interaction between virus and cell proteins, and the cellular proteins involved in adhesion modulate retrovirus transmission both positively, as shown in other systems, and negatively, as shown here.

Signaling through the tetraspanin CD82 triggers its association with the cytoskeleton leading to sustained morphological changes and T cell activation.

In this report, we provide new evidence of a crosstalk between T cell activation and adhesion processes through a functional cytokeleton. We show that CD82 signaling induces long-lasting adhesion, spreading and development of membrane extensions, involving actin polymerization. Addition of various co-stimuli (phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate or monoclonal antibodies to CD3 or CD2) increases the CD82-induced morphological alterations and, reciprocally, CD82 engagement synergizes with these stimuli to induce T cell activation as indicated by both primary tyrosine phosphorylation and IL-2 production. Different kinases are involved in both processes. CD82 co-signaling involves src kinases including p56 Ick. On the other hand, the CD82-induced alterations of cell morphology are negatively regulated by cAMP-dependent kinases independently of activation of src kinases. Simultaneously with cytoskeletal rearrangements, we observed an inducible association of CD82 with the cytoskeletal matrix. In addition, the potentiating and stabilizing effects induced by CD82 cross-linking on tyrosine phosphorylation were abolished by cytoskeleton-disrupting agents. These results suggest that the actin polymerization triggered by CD82, through its ability to associate with the cytoskeletal matrix, is the primary step involved in the CD82 induced co-stimulatory activity. Our data provide further evidence for a direct role of the actin cytoskeleton as a major component for sustained signal transduction in T cells and suggest that tetraspanins could be "membrane organizers" connecting both surface and intracellular molecules.

In vitro differentiation of peripheral blood T cells towards a type 2 phenotype is impaired in rheumatoid arthritis (RA).

We have examined the capacity of peripheral blood T cells from RA patients to be polarized in vitro towards a type 1 (T1) or a type 2 (T2) phenotype. Peripheral blood T cells from RA patients and from healthy donors were primed by 1 week of culture with soluble OKT3 in the presence of polarizing cytokines. The recovered T cells were restimulated and their cytokine secretion profile determined. Priming of T cells from RA patients in the presence of recombinant (r)IL-2 plus rIL-12 induced a shift towards a TI pattern, characterized by increased production of interferon-gamma, that was more pronounced than in the case of healthy donors. Conversely, priming of T cells from RA patients in the presence of IL-4 failed to induce a shift towards a T2 profile after 1 week, whereas it induced T cells from healthy donors to acquire such a profile characterized by heightened production of IL-4, IL-5 and IL-13. However, a T2 polarization profile emerged in T cells from RA patients that were primed in the presence of rIL-4 and subsequently maintained in culture in rIL-2 alone for 1 or 2 additional weeks. We conclude that in vitro differentiation of peripheral T cells towards a type 2 phenotype is impaired in RA. Nevertheless, conditions required to drive peripheral T cells towards a type 2 phenotype were established. Administration of autologous polyclonal T cells expressing a type 2 cytokine secretion profile is proposed as a therapeutic strategy in RA.

A newly established porcine aortic endothelial cell line: characterization and application to the study of human-to-swine graft rejection.

The establishment of cell lines allows reproductible in vitro studies that would be far more difficult to perform using primary cells that rapidly undergo phenotypical alterations in culture. The purpose of this work was to establish an endothelial cell line appropriate for in vitro study of endothelial cell activation during xenograft rejection. Porcine aortic endothelial cells were transfected with the early region of SV40 and selected on the basis of morphological, phenotypical, and functional features. By light and electron microscopy, the porcine aortic endothelial cell line (PAEC11) and primary cells were similar except that PAEC11 was slightly smaller. PAEC11 displayed endothelial cell characteristics since it endocytosed acetylated low density lipoproteins, produced von Willebrand factor, and expressed E-selectin. Human natural antibodies bound to the same xenoantigens on PAEC11 and primary cells. That binding was followed by human complement activation and cell lysis. In addition, PAEC11 was found appropriate for genetic engineering since it could be transfected with a plasmid encoding a foreign gene. Therefore, this cell line should be a useful model for in vitro study of endothelial cell function in general and human-to-swine xenograft rejection in particular.

The tetraspanin protein CD82 associates with both free HLA class I heavy chain and heterodimeric beta 2-microglobulin complexes.

CD82 is a tetraspan transmembrane protein on NK/LAK-susceptible targets. A single highly glycosylated protein of heterogeneous molecular mass (50-90 kDa) was immunoprecipitated by anti-CD82 from Nonidet P-40 lysates of various B cell lines, Raji, Daudi, 721, and 721.134. Using the milder detergent 3-[(3-cholamidopropyl)dimethylammonio]-1-propanesulfonate (CHAPS), additional proteins were coprecipitated with CD82 from surface iodinated B cell lines, including a major band at 45 kDa, identified as the HLA class I heavy chain by sequential immunoprecipitations and sequential immunoprecipitation-Western blot analysis. Cocapping experiments confirmed the molecular association of CD82 and HLA class I at the cell surface of these B cell lines. CD82 could be coprecipitated with both mature and beta 2-microglobulin (beta 2m)-free heavy chains of MHC-I from CHAPS extracts. No association between MHC-I and CD82 was found in the beta 2m-deficient Daudi cell line or after co-in vitro translation of CD82, MHC heavy chain, and beta 2m mRNA. The most likely source of free class I heavy chains at the cell surface is by dissociation of beta 2m-associated class I molecules. These results suggest that association of CD82-MHC-I takes place at the cell surface and could interfere with the capacity of the MHC-I complex to protect targets from NK-mediated cytotoxicity.

Functional analysis of four tetraspans, CD9, CD53, CD81, and CD82, suggests a common role in costimulation, cell adhesion, and migration: only CD9 upregulates HB-EGF activity.

Molecules of the tetraspan superfamily are engaged in multimolecular complexes containing other proteins such as beta 1 integrins and MHC antigens. Although their functions are not clear, they have been suggested to play a role in cell adhesion and migration, signal transduction, and costimulation. We have in this paper directly compared the functional properties of four tetraspans, CD9, CD53, CD81, and CD82. mAbs to any of these molecules were able to deliver a costimulatory signal for CD3-mediated activation of the T cell line Jurkat. CD82 mAbs were the most efficient in triggering this effect. Moreover, engagement of CD9, CD81, and CD82 induced the homotypic aggregation of the megakaryocytic cell line HEL, and inhibited the migration of this cell line. Similar results were obtained with the preB cell line NALM-6 using the CD9 and CD81 mAbs. The CD81 mAb 5A6 produced the strongest effects. Therefore, the tetraspans are recognized by mAbs which produce similar effects on the same cell lines. This is consistent with the tetraspans being included in large molecular complexes and possibly forming a tetraspan network (the tetraspan web). We also demonstrate that the tetraspans are likely to keep specific functional properties inside this network. Indeed, we have demonstrated that the human CD9 is able, like the monkey molecule, to upregulate the activity of the transmembrane precursor of heparin-binding EGF as a receptor for the diphtheria toxin when cotransfected in murine LM cells. Neither CD81, nor CD82 had such activity. By using chimeric CD9/CD81 molecules we demonstrate that this activity requires the second half of CD9, which contains the large extracellular loop, the fourth transmembrane region, and the last short cytoplasmic domain.

CD9, CD63, CD81, and CD82 are components of a surface tetraspan network connected to HLA-DR and VLA integrins.

CD9, CD63, CD81, and CD82 are glycoproteins of unknown function which belong to the tetraspan superfamily. These molecules have short cytoplasmic sequences, four transmembrane domains and two unequal extracellular regions. Here, we show that these molecules are associated with each other on cell surface and with other glycoproteins such as very late antigen (VLA) integrins and HLA-DR antigens. Moreover, the VLA integrins and HLA-DR antigens were also found to be associated. The interactions of these molecules were analyzed by transfection experiments. It is demonstrated that overexpression of CD9 antigen in Raji cells leads to a lower efficiency of precipitation of CD81 and CD82, suggesting a direct interaction between these molecules. In these cells, the co-precipitation of CD81 and CD82 was not modified, suggesting that these tetraspans did not compete for association. However, in COS-7 cells, transfection of both CD81 and CD82 led to a marked reduction of the number of CD9/CD81 or CD9/CD82 complexes compared to single-transfected cells, and this was associated with the appearance of CD81/CD82 complexes. Therefore, in this cellular system, CD9 competes with CD81 and CD82 for association with the other tetraspan proteins. Finally, the tetraspans do not compete for the association with integrins or HLA-DR. Indeed, when CD9 was expressed in Raji cells, it was incorporated into the pre-existing complexes of these molecules with CD81 and CD82. These data suggest the existence of a tetraspan network which, by connecting several molecules, may organize the positioning of cell surface proteins and play a role in signal transduction, cell adhesion, and motility.

Experimental gene therapy of cancer using tumor cells engineered to secrete interleukin-13.

Cytokines locally delivered to the site of a tumor boost both specific and nonspecific host anti-tumor defenses. Interleukin (IL)-13 is a recently described cytokine produced by mouse type 2 helper T lymphocytes. The aim of this study was to evaluate the inhibition of tumor growth induced by IL-13 delivered locally within or around transplanted tumor cells in mice. We observed that local administration of IL-13 at the site of transplanted tumor cells in vivo had potent inhibitory effects on growth of both immunogenic (P815 mastocytoma, H-2d) or nonimmunogenic (3LL lung carcinoma, H-2b) tumor cells. Mice injected with transfected P815 cells secreting large amounts of IL-13 rejected the P815 tumor and developed systemic specific anti-tumor immunity leading to long-lasting specific anti-tumor protection. Less efficient anti-tumoral effects were obtained with the nonimmunogenic 3LL tumor model when local administration of IL-13 was achieved by co-inoculating xenogeneic chinese hamster ovary (CHO) IL-13 cells. Several local injections of CHO IL-13 cells were needed to obtain rejection of 3LL tumors and no induction of long-lasting anti-3LL memory was obtained. Several studies were performed to elucidate the IL-13 anti-tumoral effects. Experiments with nude mice indicated that Il-13 can also stimulate nonspecific anti-tumor defenses. The histological examination of P815 IL-13 cells undergoing rejection showed monocytic cells and neutrophils infiltrating the tumor. Studies indicated that IL-13 administered in vitro did not directly stimulate the cytotoxicity of peritoneal macrophages and natural killer cells. However, experiments with Boyden chemotaxis chambers indicated that IL-13 was chemotactic for macrophages. Finally, preliminary experiments in vitro suggest that IL-13 improved antigenic presentation of P815 membranes. Thus, anti-tumor effects of IL-13 in vivo most probably result from pleiotropic effects including recruitment of nonspecific cells and improved stimulation of immune-specific anti-tumor effectors.

CD82, member of the tetra-span-transmembrane protein family, is a costimulatory protein for T cell activation.

It is now well documented that full activation of T cells requires a two-signal triggering that can be mimicked, in the absence of accessory cells, by co-immobilization of mAbs directed to stimulatory/accessory molecules (CD2, CD3, CD28, adhesion molecules, etc.). In this report, we describe that engagement of CD82 can delivery such a costimulatory signal for full activation of the human T cell line Jurkat, leading to strong IL-2 production and cell differentiation. The CD82 Ag, which belongs to the new tetra-span-transmembrane family (CD9, CD37, CD53, CD63, and CD81 (TAPA-1)), has been identified originally in our laboratory for its enhanced expression on three LAK-susceptible cell lines, and has been characterized as an activation/differentiation marker of mononuclear cells. Jurkat cells, stimulated in vitro by co-immobilization of anti-CD82 and anti-CD3 mAbs, produced high levels of IL-2, became strongly adherent to plastic dishes, and developed dendritic processes. These morphologic changes, associated with a total arrest of cell proliferation, were not the result of cell death but rather of cell differentiation, as shown by an increase in their metabolic activity. Costimulation through both CD82 and CD3 induced up-regulation of both IL-2 and IFN-gamma mRNA synthesis (but not of IL-4) and an increased expression of HLA class I molecules at the cell surface, which was inhibited by anti-IFN-gamma Ab.

CD82, tetra-span-transmembrane protein, is a regulated transducing molecule on U937 monocytic cell line.

The mononuclear cell surface protein IA4, recently classified as CD82, was originally identified in our laboratory by the IA4 monoclonal antibody (mAb), because of its high expression on three lymphoblastoid, LAK-susceptible, variant cell lines. We have characterized CD82 as a new activation/differentiation marker of mononuclear cells. This protein belongs to the new family of TST proteins (tetra spans transmembrane), which includes CD9, CD37, CD53, CD63, and CD81 (TAPA-1). Here we demonstrate that cross-linking of IA4 mAbs induces an increase of intracellular free calcium in U937 cells and tyrosine phosphorylation of various proteins. Our data indicate that the intracellular calcium increase is initiated by a phospholipase C (PLC)-induced PtdIns(1,4,5)P3 second messenger followed by a more stable change, linked to extracellular calcium entry. This transducing signal was dependent on dual engagement of both CD82 and Fc receptors. Surface cross-linking of CD82 together with Fc receptors (FcRs) induces a specific long-lasting increase of intracellular calcium, whereas FcR cross-linking alone induces only a transient calcium mobilization. These results suggest that, upon cross-linking of CD82, a multimolecular complex including CD82 and FcR could be induced that is able to trigger signal transduction. We have previously shown that CD82 membrane expression is up-regulated during differentiation of human monocytes. Using U937 cells, we demonstrate here that several cytokines [interleukin-1 beta (IL-1 beta), IL-4, IL-6, IL-13, interferon-gamma, tumor necrosis factor alpha] could significantly up-regulate the surface expression of CD82 antigen, by contrast with FcR surface expression, which was up-regulated only after IFN-gamma treatments. Based on our finding of a strict dependence of CD82 activation on FcR stimulation, we suggest a putative role of CD82 in enhancing FcR-mediated activation of cells from the monocyte/macrophage lineage.

Further characterization of CD82/IA4 antigen (type III surface protein): an activation/differentiation marker of mononuclear cells.

The mononuclear cell surface protein IA4 was originally identified in our lab using a mAb selected because of its strong reactivity with three lymphoblastoid variant cell lines which are HLA class I deficient, are LAK susceptible, and form a high number of conjugates with LAK effectors. We previously cloned the cDNA of the IA4 protein, coding for a 267-amino-acid type III integral membrane protein, with four transmembrane domains and three possible N-glycosylation sites. The IA4 protein belongs to the tetra span transmembrane (TST) new family of surface molecules, which also includes CD9, CD37, CD53, CD63, and TAPA-1. IA4 antigen was recently recognized as belonging to a new cluster of differentiation CD82 (International CD Workshop, Boston 1993). The IA4 antigen expression pattern at the surface of immune cells from normal donors was studied. On T lymphocytes, IA4 was barely detectable on resting cells and increased 3.5- to 7-fold following PHA or PHA+PMA stimulation. This IA4 increased expression is correlated with the morphologic change in blast cells and with the expression of activation markers such as CD2 and MHC class II antigens, therefore suggesting that IA4 is an activation marker on T lymphocytes. The expression of IA4 was low on circulating resting monocytes collected by elutriation. However, these monocytes, cultured in medium alone or with GM-CSF, acquired the morphology of macrophage and simultaneously overexpressed MHC Class II, CD14, and IA4 antigens, suggesting that IA4 is a differentiation marker for macrophages, whatever the culture conditions, either adherent (plastic culture dishes) or nonadherent (Teflon culture bags). IA4 stable transfectants of the murine mastocytoma cell line P815 were obtained and used to generate a new mAb. Competitive epitope binding studies have shown that IA4 antigen presents a dominant epitope recognized by most of the mAb prepared either in our lab or elsewhere. This dominant epitope is not shared by any of the other antigens of the TST family. Using this new mAb we were able to biochemically characterize the IA4 antigen as a 28-kDa protein, highly N-glycosylated with different patterns on various cells.

A member of the tetra spans transmembrane protein superfamily is recognized by a monoclonal antibody raised against an HLA class I-deficient, lymphokine-activated killer-susceptible, B lymphocyte line. Cloning and preliminary functional studies.

The IA4 mAb was identified among a series of antibodies raised in BALB/c mice after immunization against a HLA class I-deficient, lymphokine-activated killer (LAK)-susceptible EBV-B lymphocyte line. The IA4 antibody was selected because of its high expression, in the range of 10(5) to 25 x 10(5) sites/cell, on several B lymphocyte lines (EBV-transformed or Burkitt) and monocytic lines such as HL60 and U937, and because its expression was correlated with both target susceptibility to LAK lysis and reduced expression of HLA class I surface Ag on two pairs of EBV-B-transformed cell lines (721/721.134 and MM/10F2). Despite the strategy followed to raise the mAb and the correlation mentioned above, no direct role of the IA4 molecules in LAK susceptibility has been established, since the IA4 molecule is poorly expressed on the sensitive targets Daudi and K562; moreover, the IA4 antibody did not affect reproducibly the in vitro killing of positive target cells by LAK effectors. The IA4 antibody was poorly immunoprecipitating and the surface molecule recognized was identified by gene cloning following an expression strategy using a U937 cDNA library transfected in COS cells, and a screening strategy based on membrane expression of IA4 molecule. The IA4 cDNA is virtually identical to "R2," a mRNA species previously identified in activated human T cells by subtractive hybridization. The IA4 cDNA contains an open reading frame coding for a protein 267 amino acids long with four potential transmembrane domains and one large external hydrophilic domain of about 110 amino acids, possibly glycosylated. The encoded protein belongs to a family of surface molecules, the tetra spans transmembrane protein superfamily, all displaying the four transmembrane domains, expressed on various cell types including lymphocytes (CD9, CD37, CD53, TAPA-1), melanoma cells (ME491), and intestinal cells (CO-029). These molecules have been reported to be involved in cell activation and cell death. Surprisingly, the Schistosoma mansoni Ag Sm23 displays significant homologies with this family. The IA4 molecule is a widely distributed surface marker expressed on circulating lymphocytes and monocytes, newborn thymocytes, and the cell lines mentioned above. The IA4 molecule expression is up-regulated upon cell activation. Weakly expressed on resting peripheral T and B lymphocytes and large granular lymphocytes (NK), its expression roughly doubles after activation by PHA, staphylococcus aureus Cowan I, and IL-2, respectively.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Target lysis by human LAK cells is critically dependent upon target binding properties, but LFA-1, LFA-3 and ICAM-1 are not the major adhesion ligands on targets.

The cytotoxicity mediated by the CD2+ CD3- lymphocyte subset, either NK or LAK, is puzzling since no specific antigen recognition structures, equivalent to the CD3-associated heterodimer T-cell receptor, have been recognized on these cells so far. The possibility exists that the CD3- cytotoxic effectors recognize their targets through non-specific adhesion mechanisms. The goal of this study was: (a) to examine the correlation between binding properties and susceptibility to lysis of 6 informative target cell lines; (b) to evaluate the role, as ligands on these targets, of adhesion molecules such as LFA-1, LFA-3 and ICAM-1. The effectors used in this study were IL-2-activated LGL, predominantly CD3-, or highly purified CD3- lymphocytes from normal human donors. The 6 target lines studied included 2 pairs of EBV-transformed B-cell lines (721 LCL vs. 721.134, and MM vs. MM-10F2) in which the parental lines were resistant to lysis while HLA variants were susceptible. A third pair was the Daudi Burkitt cell line, susceptible to LAK lysis, and an HLA-positive transfected Daudi line which was more resistant to lysis. The binding properties of these targets to LAK effectors (conjugate formation) were evaluated using a sensitive double fluorescence flow cytometry method. In each pair examined, the susceptible targets formed more conjugates and were surrounded by more cytotoxic LAK effectors than their resistant counterparts, indicating that the conjugation properties of targets are closely correlated with their susceptibility to LAK lysis. The expression of adhesion molecules on the informative targets was examined by indirect immunofluorescence and their role was evaluated by inhibition of lysis after pre-coating the targets with the relevant antibodies. The differences in the expression of the classical cell-cell adhesion molecules LFA-1, LFA-3 and ICAM-1 on the target surfaces were only marginal, insufficient to explain the striking differences in susceptibility to lysis and in binding properties. Coating the target cells with antibodies directed against these adhesion determinants had no effects on the lysis of susceptible target cells. The same antibodies reacting with the LAK effectors did inhibit lysis. Taken together, these results suggest that, on the targets, presently undefined membrane adhesion structures may have a major role in conjugate formation between target and CD3- effectors and determine the susceptibility of the targets to lysis.

An improved double fluorescence flow cytometry method for the quantification of killer cell/target cell conjugate formation.

We have developed an improved method to analyse stable associations (conjugate formation) between effector and target cells. Hydroethidine (red) stained lymphoblastoid target cells were cocentrifuged with carboxyfluorescein diacetate acetoxymethylester (green) stained human IL-2 activated cytotoxic cells (LAK). In the present studies either enriched or purified CD3 negative large granular lymphocytes (LGL) were used as cytotoxic cells. These fluorescent vital dyes localize intracellularly and therefore do not modify the cell to cell contact which eventually leads to the lytic events. Both dyes can be excited at a common wavelength (488 nm) using a single argon laser. Effectors firmly bound to target(s) (stable conjugates) were detected as two color fluorescent events (red and green). This method has several features: (a) the number of conjugates is recorded with reference to a fixed number of target cells; (b) the composition of conjugates (number of effectors or targets per conjugate) can be studied by analysis of the fluorescence intensities (red or green); (c) conjugate formation can be studied at E:T ratios comparable to those used in the classical 51Cr release cytotoxic assay; (d) it gives reproducible results and permits the study of very weak differences in binding properties. This method was used to study conjugate formation between human IL-2-activated cytotoxic cells (or purified CD3 negative LGL) and various lymphoblastoid target cells. We were able to demonstrate that cell lines susceptible to lysis formed more conjugates and were surrounded by more LAK effectors than their resistant counterparts and that no conjugate contained more than one target.