Long-term fate of neural precursor cells following transplantation into developing and adult CNS.

Successful strategies for transplantation of neural precursor cells for replacement of lost or dysfunctional CNS cells require long-term survival of grafted cells and integration with the host system, potentially for the life of the recipient. It is also important to demonstrate that transplants do not result in adverse outcomes. Few studies have examined the long-term properties of transplanted neural precursor cells in the CNS, particularly in non-neurogenic regions of the adult. The aim of the present study was to extensively characterize the fate of defined populations of neural precursor cells following transplantation into the developing and adult CNS (brain and spinal cord) for up to 15 months, including integration of graft-derived neurons with the host. Specifically, we employed neuronal-restricted precursors and glial-restricted precursors, which represent neural precursor cells with lineage restrictions for neuronal and glial fate, respectively. Transplanted cells were prepared from embryonic day-13.5 fetal spinal cord of transgenic donor rats that express the marker gene human placental alkaline phosphatase to achieve stable and reliable graft tracking. We found that in both developing and adult CNS grafted cells showed long-term survival, morphological maturation, extensive distribution and differentiation into all mature CNS cell types (neurons, astrocytes and oligodendrocytes). Graft-derived neurons also formed synapses, as identified by electron microscopy, suggesting that transplanted neural precursor cells integrated with adult CNS. Furthermore, grafts did not result in any apparent deleterious outcomes. We did not detect tumor formation, cells did not localize to unwanted locations and no pronounced immune response was present at the graft sites. The long-term stability of neuronal-restricted precursors and glial-restricted precursors and the lack of adverse effects suggest that transplantation of lineage-restricted neural precursor cells can serve as an effective and safe replacement therapy for CNS injury and degeneration.

Long-term fate of neural precursor cells following transplantation into developing and adult CNS.

Successful strategies for transplantation of neural precursor cells for replacement of lost or dysfunctional CNS cells require long-term survival of grafted cells and integration with the host system, potentially for the life of the recipient. It is also important to demonstrate that transplants do not result in adverse outcomes. Few studies have examined the long-term properties of transplanted neural precursor cells in the CNS, particularly in non-neurogenic regions of the adult. The aim of the present study was to extensively characterize the fate of defined populations of neural precursor cells following transplantation into the developing and adult CNS (brain and spinal cord) for up to 15 months, including integration of graft-derived neurons with the host. Specifically, we employed neuronal-restricted precursors and glial-restricted precursors, which represent neural precursor cells with lineage restrictions for neuronal and glial fate, respectively. Transplanted cells were prepared from embryonic day-13.5 fetal spinal cord of transgenic donor rats that express the marker gene human placental alkaline phosphatase to achieve stable and reliable graft tracking. We found that in both developing and adult CNS grafted cells showed long-term survival, morphological maturation, extensive distribution and differentiation into all mature CNS cell types (neurons, astrocytes and oligodendrocytes). Graft-derived neurons also formed synapses, as identified by electron microscopy, suggesting that transplanted neural precursor cells integrated with adult CNS. Furthermore, grafts did not result in any apparent deleterious outcomes. We did not detect tumor formation, cells did not localize to unwanted locations and no pronounced immune response was present at the graft sites. The long-term stability of neuronal-restricted precursors and glial-restricted precursors and the lack of adverse effects suggest that transplantation of lineage-restricted neural precursor cells can serve as an effective and safe replacement therapy for CNS injury and degeneration.

Germline mutations in the ribonuclease L gene in families showing linkage with HPC1.

Although prostate cancer is the most common non-cutaneous malignancy diagnosed in men in the United States, little is known about inherited factors that influence its genetic predisposition. Here we report that germline mutations in the gene encoding 2'-5'-oligoadenylate(2-5A)-dependent RNase L (RNASEL) segregate in prostate cancer families that show linkage to the HPC1 (hereditary prostate cancer 1) region at 1q24-25 (ref. 9). We identified RNASEL by a positional cloning/candidate gene method, and show that a nonsense mutation and a mutation in an initiation codon of RNASEL segregate independently in two HPC1-linked families. Inactive RNASEL alleles are present at a low frequency in the general population. RNASEL regulates cell proliferation and apoptosis through the interferon-regulated 2-5A pathway and has been suggested to be a candidate tumor suppressor gene. We found that microdissected tumors with a germline mutation showed loss of heterozygosity and loss of RNase L protein, and that RNASEL activity was reduced in lymphoblasts from heterozyogous individuals compared with family members who were homozygous with respect to the wildtype allele. Thus, germline mutations in RNASEL may be of diagnostic value, and the 2-5A pathway might provide opportunities for developing therapies for those with prostate cancer.

PDEPT: polymer-directed enzyme prodrug therapy. I. HPMA copolymer-cathepsin B and PK1 as a model combination.

Polymer-directed enzyme prodrug therapy (PDEPT) is a novel two-step antitumour approach using a combination of a polymeric prodrug and polymer-enzyme conjugate to generate cytotoxic drug selectively at the tumour site. In this study the polymeric prodrug N-(2-hydroxypropyl) methacrylamide (HPMA) copolymer-Gly-Phe-Leu-Gly-doxorubicin conjugate PK1 (currently under Phase II clinical evaluation) was selected as the model prodrug, and HPMA copolymer-cathepsin B as a model for the activating enzyme conjugate. Following polymer conjugation (yield of 30-35%) HPMA copolymer-cathepsin B retained approximately 20-25% enzymatic activity in vitro. To investigate pharmacokinetics in vivo,(125)I-labelled HPMA copolymer-cathepsin B was administered intravenously (i.v.) to B16F10 tumour-bearing mice. HPMA copolymer-cathespin B exhibited a longer plasma half-life (free cathepsin B t(1/2alpha)= 2.8 h; bound cathepsin B t(1/2alpha)= 3.2 h) and a 4.2-fold increase in tumour accumulation compared to the free enzyme. When PK1 (10 mg kg(-1)dox-equiv.) was injected i.v. into C57 mice bearing subcutaneously (s.c.) palpable B16F10 tumours followed after 5 h by HPMA copolymer-cathepsin B there was a rapid increase in the rate of dox release within the tumour (3.6-fold increase in the AUC compared to that seen for PK1 alone). When PK1 and the PDEPT combination were used to treat established B16F10 melanoma tumour (single dose; 10 mg kg(-1)dox-equiv.), the antitumour activity (T/C%) seen for the combination PDEPT was 168% compared to 152% seen for PK1 alone, and 144% for free dox. Also, the PDEPT combination showed activity against a COR-L23 xenograft whereas PK1 did not. PDEPT has certain advantages compared to ADEPT and GDEPT. The relatively short plasma residence time of the polymeric prodrug allows subsequent administration of polymer-enzyme without fear of prodrug activation in the circulation and polymer-enzyme conjugates have reduced immunogenicity. This study proves the concept of PDEPT and further optimisation is warranted.

c-Jun N-terminal kinase specifically phosphorylates p66ShcA at serine 36 in response to ultraviolet irradiation.

Mice lacking expression of the p66 isoform of the ShcA adaptor protein (p66(ShcA)) are less susceptible to oxidative stress and have an extended life span. Specifically, phosphorylation of p66(ShcA) at serine 36 is critical for the cell death response elicited by oxidative damage. We sought to identify the kinase(s) responsible for this phosphorylation. Utilizing the SH-SY5Y human neuroblastoma cell model, it is demonstrated that p66(ShcA) is phosphorylated on serine/threonine residues in response to UV irradiation. Both c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNKs) and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinases are activated by UV irradiation, and we show that both are capable of phosphorylating serine 36 of p66(ShcA) in vitro. However, treatment of cells with a multiple lineage kinase inhibitor, CEP-1347, that blocks UV-induced JNK activation, but not p38, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase, or MEK1 inhibitors, prevented p66(ShcA) phosphorylation in SH-SY5Y cells. Consistent with this finding, transfected activated JNK1, but not the kinase-dead JNK1, leads to phosphorylation of serine 36 of p66(ShcA) in Chinese hamster ovary cells. In conclusion, JNKs are the kinases that phosphorylate serine 36 of p66(ShcA) in response to UV irradiation in SH-SY5Y cells, and blocking p66(ShcA) phosphorylation by intervening in the JNK pathway may prevent cellular damage due to light-induced oxidative stress.

Cloning and characterization of 13 novel transcripts and the human RGS8 gene from the 1q25 region encompassing the hereditary prostate cancer (HPC1) locus.

The aim of this study was to develop a saturated transcript map of the region encompassing the HPC1 locus to identify the susceptibility genes involved in hereditary prostate cancer (OMIM 176807) and hyperparathyroidism-jaw tumor syndrome (OMIM 145001). We previously reported the generation of a 6-Mb BAC/PAC contig of the candidate region and employed various strategies, such as database searching, exon-trapping, direct cDNA hybridization, and sample sequencing of BACs, to identify all potential transcripts. These efforts led to the identification and precise localization on the BAC contig of 59 transcripts representing 22 known genes and 37 potential transcripts represented by ESTs and exon traps. Here we report the detailed characterization of these ESTs into full-length transcript sequences, their expression pattern in various tissues, their genomic organization, and their homology to known genes. We have also identified an Alu insertion polymorphism in the intron of one of the transcripts. Overall, data on 13 novel transcripts and the human RGS8 gene (homologue of the rat RGS8 gene) are presented in this paper. Ten of the 13 novel transcripts are expressed in prostate tissue and represent positional candidates for HPC1.

Cep-1347 (KT7515), a semisynthetic inhibitor of the mixed lineage kinase family.

CEP-1347 (KT7515) promotes neuronal survival at dosages that inhibit activation of the c-Jun amino-terminal kinases (JNKs) in primary embryonic cultures and differentiated PC12 cells after trophic withdrawal and in mice treated with 1-methyl-4-phenyl tetrahydropyridine. In an effort to identify molecular target(s) of CEP-1347 in the JNK cascade, JNK1 and known upstream regulators of JNK1 were co-expressed in Cos-7 cells to determine whether CEP-1347 could modulate JNK1 activation. CEP-1347 blocked JNK1 activation induced by members of the mixed lineage kinase (MLK) family (MLK3, MLK2, MLK1, dual leucine zipper kinase, and leucine zipper kinase). The response was selective because CEP-1347 did not inhibit JNK1 activation in cells induced by kinases independent of the MLK cascade. CEP-1347 inhibition of recombinant MLK members in vitro was competitive with ATP, resulting in IC(50) values ranging from 23 to 51 nm, comparable to inhibitory potencies observed in intact cells. In addition, overexpression of MLK3 led to death in Chinese hamster ovary cells, and CEP-1347 blocked this death at doses comparable to those that inhibited MLK3 kinase activity. These results identify MLKs as targets of CEP-1347 in the JNK signaling cascade and demonstrate that CEP-1347 can block MLK-induced cell death.

Pharmacokinetic evaluation of N-[2-(dimethylamino)ethyl]acridine-4-carboxamide in patients by positron emission tomography.

PURPOSE: To evaluate tumor, normal tissue, and plasma pharmacokinetics of N-[2-(dimethylamino)ethyl]acridine-4-carboxamide (DACA). The study aimed to determine the pharmacokinetics of carbon-11-labeled DACA ([11C]DACA) and evaluate the effect of pharmacologic doses of DACA on radiotracer kinetics. PATIENTS AND METHODS: [11C]DACA (at 1/1,000 phase I starting dose) was administered to 24 patients with advanced cancer (pre-phase I) or during a phase I trial of DACA in five patients. Positron emission tomography (PET) was performed to assess pharmacokinetics and tumor blood flow. Plasma samples were analyzed for metabolite profile of [11C]DACA. RESULTS: There was rapid systemic clearance of [11C]DACA over 60 minutes (1.57 and 1.46 L x min(-1) x m(-2) in pre-phase I and phase I studies, respectively) with the production of several radiolabeled plasma metabolites. Tumor, brain, myocardium, vertebra, spleen, liver, lung, and kidneys showed appreciable uptake of 11C radioactivity. The area under the time-versus-radioactivity curves (AUC) showed the highest variability in tumors. Of interest to potential toxicity, maximum radiotracer concentrations (Cmax) in brain and vertebra were low (0.67 and 0.54 m(2) x mL(-1), respectively) compared with other tissues. A moderate but significant correlation was observed for tumor blood flow with AUC (r = 0.76; P =.02) and standardized uptake value (SUV) at 55 minutes (r = 0.79; P =.01). A decrease in myocardial AUC ( P =.03) and splenic and myocardial SUV ( P =.01 and.004, respectively) was seen in phase I studies. Significantly higher AUC, SUV, and Cmax were observed in tumors in phase I studies. CONCLUSION: The distribution of [11C]DACA and its radiolabeled metabolites was observed in a variety of tumors and normal tissues. In the presence of unlabeled DACA, pharmacokinetics were altered in myocardium, spleen, and tumors. These data have implications for predicting activity and toxicity of DACA and support the use of PET early in drug development.

beta-Amyloid-induced neuronal apoptosis requires c-Jun N-terminal kinase activation.

beta-Amyloid (A beta) has been strongly implicated in the pathophysiology of Alzheimer's disease (AD), but the means by which the aggregated form of this molecule induces neuronal death have not been fully defined. Here, we examine the role of the c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNKs) and of their substrate, c-Jun, in the death of cultured neuronal PC12 cells and sympathetic neurons evoked by exposure to aggregated A beta. The activities of JNK family members increased in neuronal PC12 cells within 2 h of A beta treatment and reached 3--4-fold elevation by 6 h. To test the role of these changes in death caused by A beta, we examined the effects of CEP-1347 (KT7515), an indolocarbazole that selectively blocks JNK activation. Inclusion of CEP-1347 (100--300 nM) in the culture medium effectively blocked the increases in cellular JNK activity caused by A beta and, at similar concentrations, protected both PC12 cells and sympathetic neurons from A beta-evoked-death. Effective protection required addition of CEP-1347 within 2 h of A beta treatment, indicating that the JNK pathway acts relatively proximally and as a trigger in the death mechanism. A dominant-negative c-Jun construct also conferred protection from A beta-evoked death, supporting a model in which JNK activation contributes to death via activation of c-Jun. Finally, CEP-1347 blocked A beta-stimulated activation of caspase-2 and -3, placing these downstream of JNK activation. These observations implicate the JNK pathway as a required element in death evoked by A beta and hence identify it as a potential therapeutic target in AD.

A 6-Mb high-resolution physical and transcription map encompassing the hereditary prostate cancer 1 (HPC1) region.

Several hereditary disease loci have been genetically mapped to the chromosome 1q24-q31 interval, including the hereditary prostate cancer 1 (HPC1) locus. Here, we report the construction of a 20-Mb yeast artificial chromosome contig and a high-resolution 6-Mb sequence-ready bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC)/P1-derived artificial chromosome (PAC) contig of 1q25 by sequence and computational analysis, STS content mapping, and chromosome walking. One hundred thirty-six new STSs, including 10 novel simple sequence repeat polymorphisms that are being used for genetic refinement of multiple disease loci, have been generated from this contig and are shown to map to the 1q25 interval. The integrity of the 6-Mb BAC/PAC contig has been confirmed by restriction fingerprinting, and this contig is being used as a template for human chromosome 1 genome sequencing. A transcription mapping effort has resulted in the precise localization of 18 known genes and 31 ESTs by database searching, exon trapping, direct cDNA hybridization, and sample sequencing of BACs from the 1q25 contig. An additional 11 known genes and ESTs have been placed within the larger 1q24-q31 interval. These transcription units represent candidate genes for multiple hereditary diseases, including HPC1.

Single injections of a DNA plasmid that contains the human Bcl-2 gene prevent loss and atrophy of distinct neuronal populations after spinal cord injury in adult rats.

Spinal cord injury in adult mammals causes atrophy or loss of axotomized neurons. We have previously found that the product of the antiapoptotic gene Bcl-2, delivered by intraspinal injection of a DNA plasmid, reduces atrophy and loss of axotomized Clarke's nucleus neurons in adult rats. Here we studied whether the same treatment protects axotomized red nucleus (RN) neurons. Two months after the right dorsolateral funiculus was ablated in adult Sprague-Dawley rats by C3/C4 subtotal hemisection, there was approximately 48% loss of RN neurons in the magnocellular portion of the RN contralateral to the lesion and atrophy of many surviving neurons. When a DNA plasmid encoding the human Bcl-2 gene and the bacterial reporter gene LacZ, complexed with cationic lipids, was injected just rostral to the subtotal hemisection site, 87% of RN neurons survived, and there was partial, but robust, protection from atrophy. These and our previous results indicated that intraspinal administration of the Bcl-2 gene can prevent retrograde cell loss and reduce atrophy of axotomized RN and Clarke's nucleus neurons in adult rats and provide an effective means to rescue neurons whose survival depends on different growth factors.

Red nucleus neurons of Bcl-2 over-expressing mice are protected from cell death induced by axotomy.

The Bcl-2 proto-oncogene regulates apoptosis and prevents cell death. We studied the effect of Bcl-2 gene over-expression on the survival of axotomized red nucleus (RN) neurons after unilateral hemisection at cervical segment 4/5 (C4/5) in mice. Seventy-five percent of RN neurons survived in Bcl-2 over-expressing mice 1 or 2 months after surgery compared with only 55% of RN neurons in wild-type mice. However, Bcl-2 gene over-expression does not prevent lesion-induced shrinkage of RN neurons.

Evaluation of rodent-only toxicology for early clinical trials with novel cancer therapeutics.

Preclinical toxicology studies are performed prior to phase I trials with novel cancer therapeutics to identify a safe clinical starting dose and potential human toxicities. The primary aim of this study was to evaluate the ability of rodent-only toxicology studies to identify a safe phase I trial starting dose. In addition, the ability of murine studies to predict the quantitative and qualitative human toxicology of cancer therapeutics was studied. Data for 25 cancer drugs were collated for which the preclinical and clinical routes and schedules of administration were either the same (22/25), or closely matched. The maximum tolerated dose/dose lethal to 10% of mice (MTD/LD10) was identified for 24 drugs, and in patients the maximum administered dose (MAD) was associated with dose-limiting toxicity (DLT) in initial clinical trials with 20 compounds. In addition, for 13 agents, the toxicity of the drug at one-tenth the mouse MTD/LD10 was also investigated in rats, following repeated administration (20 doses). A phase I trial starting dose of one-tenth the mouse MTD/LD10 (mg m(-2)) was, or would have been, safe for all 25 compounds. With the exception of nausea and vomiting, which cannot be assessed in rodents, other common DLTs were accurately predicted by the murine studies (i.e. 7/7 haematological and 3/3 neurological DLTs). For two of the 13 drugs studied in rats, repeated administration of one-tenth the mouse MTD/LD10 was toxic, leading to a reduction in the phase I trial starting dose; however, one-tenth the mouse MTD/LD10 was subsequently tolerated in patients. For the 20 drugs where clinical DLT was reached, the median ratio of the human MAD to the mouse MTD/LD10 was 2.6 (range 0.2-16) and the median ratio of the clinical starting dose to the MAD was 35 (range 2.3-160). In contrast, in 13 subsequent phase I trials with 11 of the initial 25 drugs, the median ratio of the clinical starting dose to the MAD was 2.8 (range 1.6-56), emphasizing the value of early clinical data in rapidly defining the dose range for therapeutic studies. For all 25 drugs studied, rodent-only toxicology provided a safe and rapid means of identifying the phase I trial starting dose and predicting commonly encountered DLTs. This study has shown that the routine use of a non-rodent species in preclinical toxicology studies prior to initial clinical trials with cancer therapeutics is not necessary.

Somatic mutation of TSSC5, a novel imprinted gene from human chromosome 11p15.5.

We previously reported the isolation of a 2.5 Mb tumor-suppressing subchromosomal transferable fragment (STF) from 11p15.5 and the identification of nine known genes and four novel genes within this STF. We now report the isolation of a fifth novel cDNA, tumor-suppressing STF cDNA 5, designated TSSC5, located within the STF. TSSC5 encodes a predicted protein of 424 amino acids. Sequence analysis suggests that TSSC5 is a membrane protein with 10 transmembrane segments, and it is located between two imprinted genes, p57KIP2 and TSSC3. Northern blot hybridization revealed a 1.6-kb transcript in multiple adult tissues and in fetal liver and kidney, consistent with a potential role in embryonal tumors. We also found that TSSC5 is imprinted with preferential expression from the maternal chromosome. Reverse transcription-PCR analysis of TSSC5 revealed frequent occurrence of aberrant RNA splicing, which deleted exons 4, 5, and 6 in Wilms' tumors. Mutational analysis of TSSC5 by direct DNA sequencing of exons revealed a base substitution of G1120A in a Wilms' tumor, matched normal kidney, and the patient's mother, changed Arg at codon 309 to Gln. The G1120A substitution thus represents either a rare polymorphism or a tumor-predisposing mutation, because the mutant allele was of maternal origin and preferentially expressed in the patient's tissue. A second base substitution, C892T, was found in a lung cancer, changing Ser at codon 233 to Phe. This substitution was absent from the matched normal tissue and thus represented a somatic mutation. We also found loss of heterozygosity in the lung cancer, suggesting that TSSC5 may be a conventional tumor suppressor gene in the adult human lung and an imprinted tumor suppressor gene in the fetal kidney.

A 2.5-Mb transcript map of a tumor-suppressing subchromosomal transferable fragment from 11p15.5, and isolation and sequence analysis of three novel genes.

11p15.5 is an important tumor-suppressor gene region, showing loss of heterozygosity in Wilms tumor, rhabdomyosarcoma, adrenocortical carcinoma, and lung, ovarian, and breast cancer. We previously mapped directly by genetic complementation a subtransferable fragment (STF) harboring an embryonal tumor-suppressor gene and spanning about 2.5 Mb. We have now mapped the centromeric end of this STF between D11S988 and D11S12 and its telomeric end between D11S1318 and TH. We have isolated a complete contig of PAC, P1, BAC, and cosmid genomic clones spanning the entire 2.5-Mb region defined by this STF, as well as more than 200 exons from these genomic clones using exon trapping. We have isolated genes in this region by directly screening DNA libraries as well as by database searching for ESTs. Nine of these genes have been reported previously by us and by others. However, the initial mapping of most of those genes was based on FISH or somatic cell hybrid analysis, and here we precisely define their physical location. These genes include RRM1, GOK (D11S4896E), Nup98, CARS, hNAP2 (NAP1L4), p57KIP2 (CDKN1C), KVLQT1 (KCNA9), TAPA-1, and ASCL2. In addition, we have identified several novel genes in this region, three of which, termed TSSC1, TSSC2, and TSSC3, are reported here. TSSC1 shows homology to Rb-associated protein p48 and chromatin assembly factor CAF1, and it is located between GOK and Nup98. TSSC2 is homologous to Caenorhabditis elegans beta-mannosyl transferase, and it lies between Nup98 and CARS. TSSC3 shows homology to mouse TDAG51, which is implicated in FasL-mediated apoptosis, and it is located between hNAP2 and p57KIP2. Thus, these genes may play a role in malignancies that involve this region.

Polycystin: in vitro synthesis, in vivo tissue expression, and subcellular localization identifies a large membrane-associated protein.

The primary structure of polycystin predicts a large integral membrane protein with multiple cell recognition motifs, but its function remains unknown. Insight into polycystin's normal function and its role in the development of autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (PKD1) requires the assembly of an extensive collection of molecular reagents to examine its expression and create model systems for functional studies. Development of these crucial reagents has been complicated due to the presence of transcriptionally active homologous loci. We have assembled the authentic full-length PKD1 cDNA and demonstrated expression of polycystin in vitro. Polyclonal antibodies directed against distinct extra- and intracellular domains specifically immunoprecipitated in vitro translated polycystin. The panel of antibodies was used to determine localization of polycystin in renal epithelial and endothelial cell lines and tissues of fetal, adult, and cystic origins. In normal adult kidney and maturing fetal nephrons, polycystin expression was confined to epithelial cells of the distal nephron and vascular endothelial cells. Expression in the proximal nephron was only observed after injury-induced cell proliferation. Polycystin expression was confined to ductal epithelium in liver, pancreas, and breast, and restricted to astrocytes in normal brain. We report clear evidence for the membrane localization of polycystin by both tissue sections and by confocal microscopy in cultured renal and endothelial cells. Interestingly, when cultured cells made cell-cell contact, polycystin was localized to the lateral membranes of cells in contact. These data suggest that polycystin is likely to have a widespread role in epithelial cell differentiation and maturation and in cell-cell interactions.

A radioactive binding assay for inhibitors of trkA kinase.

The high-affinity receptor for nerve growth factor (NGF), trkA, is a receptor-linked tyrosine kinase. The binding of NGF to trkA, depending on the context of its environment, can cause beneficial or deleterious responses in the target cells. For example, the activation of trkA in sympathetic and sensory neurons causes the subsequent survival and differentiation of these cells. On the other hand, the activation of trkA by NGF in other cells has been implicated in several pathologies including inflammation-induced hyperalgesia and several cancers. A radioactive binding assay to evaluate inhibitors of the kinase domain of trkA has been developed and validated. The assay monitors the specific binding of an inhibitor of trkA kinase activity, the indolocarbazole K-252a, to the trkA receptor. [3H]K-252a binds with high affinity to one site on the cytoplasmic kinase domain of the trkA receptor. Binding is saturable and reversible with a dissociation constant (Kd) of 1.5 nM. The binding assay has been used in competition binding experiments to determine the inhibition constants for other indolocarbazole compounds. The IC50 values for compounds obtained in the binding assay correlate very well with the IC50 values obtained in an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for trkA tyrosine kinase activity.

KW-2149 (7-N-[2-[gamma-L-glutamylamino]ethyldithioethyl]mitomycin C). A new mitomycin C analogue activated by serum.

KW-2149 (7-N-[2-[gamma-L-glutamylamino]ethyldithioethyl]mitomycin C) is a new mitomycin-C analogue in clinical trial. This study demonstrates that KW-2149, unlike mitomycin C, is activated to a cytotoxic species by extracellular metabolism in serum. The metabolising activity differs between batches of serum and species of origin. Human serum had high activity (which resulted in a 150-fold enhancement of cytotoxicity), whereas mouse serum had low activity. In the presence of serum, the rate of uptake of 3H-KW-2149 into cells increased by 8-fold and drug binding to DNA by 32-fold. The metabolising activity of serum can partially be replaced by glutathione. No anticancer drug has previously been described whose toxicity is mediated by metabolism in serum.

Investigation of alternative prodrugs for use with E. coli nitroreductase in 'suicide gene' approaches to cancer therapy.

The most commonly employed 'suicide' gene/prodrug system used in cancer gene therapy is the herpes simplex virus thymidine kinase (HSVtk)/ganciclovir system. We have examined the efficacy of an alternative approach utilising the E. coli nitroreductase B enzyme with CB1954 and a variety of other prodrugs. V79 cells transfected with a nitroreductase expression vector were up to 770-fold more sensitive to CB1954 than control non-expressing cells. In general other prodrugs which were found by HPLC to act as substrates for purified E. coli nitroreductase also exhibited increased cytotoxicity against the nitroreductase-expressing cells, although this correlation was not absolute. In particular nitrofurazone (97-fold) and additional aromatic nitro-compounds (nine- to 50-fold) showed a large differential whereas the quinones and the antimetabolite, B-FU, were less effective (< three-fold). The results support the possibility of using nitroreductase and CB1954 for 'suicide gene' therapy and in addition suggest that alternative prodrugs, such as nitrofurazone, warrant further investigation in this novel approach.