Retrospective evaluation of wobbly hedgehog syndrome in 49 African pygmy hedgehogs (Atelerix albiventris): 2000-2020.

OBJECTIVE: To retrospectively evaluate the prevalence and clinical progression of wobbly hedgehog syndrome (WHS) and concurrent incidence of neoplasia in a cohort of African pygmy hedgehogs (Atelerix albiventris). ANIMALS: 49 hedgehogs. CLINICAL PRESENTATION AND PROCEDURES: Medical records of hedgehogs from 7 institutions across the US over a 20-year period (2000 to 2020) were retrospectively reviewed. Inclusion criteria were hedgehogs of any sex or age with postmortem CNS histopathology consistent with WHS. Collected data included sex, age at onset and euthanasia, major histopathologic findings, reported neurologic clinical signs, and treatments administered. RESULTS: 24 males and 25 females were included. Fifteen of 49 (31%) individuals had subclinical WHS with no reported antemortem neurologic clinical signs. In neurologically affected (clinical) hedgehogs (n = 34), the mean ± SD age at onset was 3.3 ± 1.5 years with a median (range) time from onset to euthanasia of 51 days (1 to 319 days). In neurologically affected hedgehogs, the most commonly reported clinical signs were ataxia (n = 21) and pelvic limb paresis (16) and the most commonly administered treatment was meloxicam (13). Overall, 31 of 49 (63%) hedgehogs had a concurrent histopathologic diagnosis of neoplasia outside of the CNS. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: The prognosis for hedgehogs with WHS is poor. No treatment had a significant effect on survival time, and neoplasia was a common comorbidity in the current cohort. A small but clinically relevant subset of neurologically normal hedgehogs had a histopathologic diagnosis of WHS.

Dermatologic Diseases of Four-Toed Hedgehogs.

Dermatologic diseases are frequently diagnosed in the four-toed hedgehog. Common clinical signs include spine loss, scales and crusts, pruritus, alopecia, and masses. Caparinia tripilis, family Psoroptidae, is the most common mite affecting hedgehogs, and is diagnosed via light microscopy. Dermatophytosis from Trichophyton erinacei infection is a common zoonotic dermatologic disease in pet hedgehogs. Diagnosis is through fungal culture. Neoplasia is another major cause of dermatologic diseases in four-toed hedgehogs. The diagnostic approach typically begins with a fine-needle aspirate but often requires a biopsy for a definitive diagnosis.

Effects of Midazolam on Food Intake in Budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus).

Currently, drug-induced stimulation of appetite is not commonly performed in hyporexic or anorexic companion psittacine birds. Instead, to prevent a catabolic state and weight loss, supplemental feedings are routinely performed by crop gavage. However, crop gavage is not without complications and is stressful to the patient and labor intensive. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of midazolam on food intake in healthy budgerigars. In a randomized, blinded, controlled study, change in food intake after intramuscular administration of midazolam (1 mg/kg) or a placebo-control treatment (0.9% saline) was evaluated in 12 healthy adult budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus). Food intake was quantified for 1 hour before and after drug administration. Birds were monitored for feeding behavior as well as signs of sedation. After midazolam administration, a median 6-fold (1.1-28) increase in food intake was recorded. In 3 of 6 (50%) birds, the food intake increase after midazolam administration was >10-fold (median 17-fold [10-28]), whereas in the remaining 3 birds, food intake increased by only 1.7-fold (1.1-1.8). The median amount of food ingested (16.7 g/kg [3.2-43.2 g/kg]) was significantly higher after midazolam administration compared with the control group (1.9 g/kg [0.0-19.7 g/kg], P = .015). The median time birds spent displaying feeding behavior after the midazolam injection was 18% (0-43%), compared with 1% (0-20%) in the control group after saline injection. Five of 6 (83%) birds showed signs consistent with mild sedation after midazolam administration. This study demonstrates that midazolam is an appetite stimulant in budgerigars. Future studies are needed to evaluate whether midazolam's effects on food intake are dose dependent and whether the duration of effect exceeds 1 hour.

Avian Sedation.

The use of procedural sedation in birds has become a routine practice in veterinary medicine during the past 10 years, with a corresponding increase in avian sedation research. Sedation is most often used in a clinical setting for birds to facilitate examination and/or diagnostic sample collection, splint application, grooming, and minor surgical procedures. Sedation provides several benefits over manual restraint or general anesthesia when performing clinical procedures. This review provides an overview of current studies on avian sedation and discusses common indications, protocols, and adverse effects of sedation in avian patients.

Computed tomography with Hounsfield unit assessment is useful in the diagnosis of liver lobe torsion in pet rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus).

Clinical signs of liver lobe torsion in rabbits are often nonspecific and mimic those that are also generally detected with gastrointestinal stasis. Nonspecific clinical signs may result in pursuit of full-body imaging such as computed tomography (CT). The aim of this multicenter, retrospective, case series study was to describe CT findings of liver lobe torsion in a group of rabbits. Computed tomography studies of six rabbits with confirmed liver lobe torsion by surgery or necropsy were evaluated. The caudate liver lobe was affected in six out of six rabbits and was enlarged, rounded, hypoattenuating, heterogeneous, and minimally to noncontrast enhancing, with scant regional peritoneal effusion. Precontrast, mean Hounsfield units (HU) of the torsed liver lobe (39.3 HU [range, 24.4-48.1 HU]) were lower than mean HU of normal liver (55.1 HU [range, 49.6-60.8 HU]), with a mean torsed:normal HU ratio of 0.71 (range, 0.49-0.91). Postcontrast, mean HU of the torsed liver lobe (38.4 HU [range, 19.7-48.9 HU]) were also lower than mean HU of normal liver (108.4 HU [range, 84.5-142.0 HU]), with a lower postcontrast mean torsed:normal HU ratio of 0.35 (range, 0.14-0.48) compared to precontrast. Mean HU of torsed liver lobes had little difference pre- and postcontrast (postcontrast HU 1.0 times the average precontrast HU [range, 0.81-1.1]), and contrast enhancement of the torsed liver lobes was on average 50% lower than in normal liver. Liver lobe torsion should be considered in rabbits with an enlarged, hypoattenuating, heterogeneous, minimally to noncontrast enhancing liver lobe, particularly the caudate lobe, and scant regional peritoneal effusion.

Splenic T-cell lymphoma in a North American River Otter (Lontra canadensis).

Background: Splenic lymphoma is commonly reported in domestic ferrets (Mustela putorious furo), but very rarely reported in wild Mustelidae species, including otters. One report described B-cell splenic lymphoma in an Asian small-clawed otter (Aonyx cinerea) that metastasized and was the primary reasoning for humane euthanasia (Stedman and Mills, 2014). Case Description: The current report describes a case of splenic T-cell lymphoma in a captive North American river otter (Lontra canadensis). The otter died several weeks after splenectomy and no evidence of metastasis was found on gross necropsy or histopathological evaluation. Conclusion: The splenectomy performed on this individual was presumptively curative for its splenic lymphoma. Extensive myocardial fibrosis was found, and suspected to have caused severe cardiac arrhythmia leading to acute death.

Emergency tracheotomy and subsequent tracheal resection and anastomosis in a blue crane (Anthropoides paradiseus).

CASE DESCRIPTION: A 7-year-old female blue crane (Anthropoides paradiseus) was initially evaluated after it had suddenly developed signs of respiratory distress following aspiration of a rock. Emergency tracheotomy had been performed, and the rock had been removed from the proximal cervical portion of the trachea. Fifty-one days later, the clinical signs had returned and the crane was reevaluated. CLINICAL FINDINGS: On reevaluation, no obvious external abnormalities were appreciated at the previous surgical site and no discharge was observed from the glottis. Computed tomography and tracheoscopy revealed marked tracheal stenosis and architectural collapse of the trachea at the previous surgery site. TREATMENT AND OUTCOME: Tracheal resection and anastomosis was performed to remove the stenotic tracheal segment. Histologic examination of the resected tracheal segment revealed pyogranulomas with intralesional coccobacilli, fungal hyphae consistent with Aspergillus spp, possible parasitic ova, and features suggestive of mild to moderate heterophilic and lymphoplasmacytic tracheitis. The crane was treated with piroxicam, ceftiofur crystalline free acid, terbinafine, and itraconazole. At a follow-up examination 12 weeks later, no abnormalities were appreciated, and the surgical site had completely healed. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: To the authors' knowledge, this is the first reported case of successful tracheal resection and anastomosis in a bird of the order Gruiformes. The surgical approach used for the blue crane may be useful for removal of tracheal foreign bodies in this and other long-necked avian species.

Efficacy of greater auricular and auriculotemporal nerve blocks performed in rabbits.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the efficacy, duration and safety of greater auricular and auriculotemporal nerve blocks in rabbits. STUDY DESIGN: Prospective, randomized, crossover, experimental study. ANIMALS: A total of 11 healthy adult Dutch-belted rabbits. METHODS: The rabbits underwent general anesthesia and injections of the greater auricular and auriculotemporal nerves using either bupivacaine (0.3 mL kg-1, 0.5%) or the same volume of saline. After anesthesia, the efficacy and duration of nerve blocks were assessed using analgesiometry forceps on the pinna and cotton-tipped applicators within the vertical ear canal. Rabbits were monitored for abnormal carriage of the ear and auriculopalpebral nerve block of the ipsilateral eye. Body weight, food intake, fecal output and fecal pellet diameter were measured daily for 6 days after the nerve blocks were performed and compared with baseline to assess short-term effects. RESULTS: The greater auricular nerve was successfully blocked in 12/16 (75%) ears for mean ± standard deviation duration of 88 ± 52 minutes. In successfully blocked ears, altered ear position was noted in five/16 (31%) cases. The auriculotemporal nerve was blocked in one/16 ears for 120 minutes. The auriculopalpebral nerve was inadvertently blocked in three/16 ears. Food intake and fecal output decreased significantly during the treatment day but returned to pretreatment values after 24 hours. There was no change in body weight or fecal pellet diameter for either treatment. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: The results suggest that duration of the greater auricular nerve block with 0.5% bupivacaine was short-lived in the live rabbit. Auriculotemporal nerve block was only achieved in one ear; therefore, further studies are warranted to evaluate the contribution of these blocks in the pain management of rabbits undergoing auricular surgery.

Recurrent Subcutaneous Teratoma in an Adult Red-crowned Amazon Parrot (Amazona viridigenalis).

An approximately 42-year-old, wild-caught, red-crowned Amazon parrot (Amazona viridigenalis) was evaluated for a subcutaneous mass to the right of the keel. Cytologic examination of a fine needle aspirate of the mass were suggestive of granulomatous inflammation. The mass was surgically excised, and the parrot was treated with oral nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Histologically, the mass was diagnosed as a teratoma with stratified squamous epithelial and neuroectodermal components. Tumor cells extended to surgical margins. Two years later, the neoplasm recurred, with regrowth of only the neuroectodermal component. The neoplasm was again removed surgically, but it recurred again 14 months later, necessitating a third surgery. Histopathologic examination confirmed recurrence of the original neoplasm in both instances, with incomplete margins on both excisions.

Retrospective Evaluation of Tibiotarsal Fractures Treated With Tape Splints in Birds: 86 Cases (2006-2015).

Tibiotarsal fractures are a common presentation in small bird species and anecdotally have been reported to carry a good prognosis with proper treatment, such as external coaptation. For this retrospective study, the medical records of 5 institutions were reviewed for tibiotarsal fractures diagnosed in companion birds weighing less than 200 g. A total of 86 cases met the inclusion criteria. Cockatiels ( Nymphicus hollandicus) (24/86) and budgerigars ( Melopsittacus undulatus) (19/86) were the most frequently represented species. Median body weight of the birds included was 72 g (range, 16-182 g). Mid-diaphyseal (46/86) and closed (73/86) fractures with intact, deep pain sensation in the affected limb (69/76) were most frequent. A tape splint alone (79/86) or a tape splint in addition to an intramedullary pin (7/86) were applied in all cases. Median time to fracture stabilization based on palpation was 19 days (range, 7-49 days). In most cases (61/86), the initial splint applied was maintained until fracture healing was complete. A successful outcome was documented in 92% (79/86) of birds. Fractures caused by a dog or cat attack, birds presenting without deep pain sensation in the affected limb, and cases where the splint was removed before 14 days after fixation were associated with a significantly increased risk of complications, resulting in an unsuccessful outcome. The findings of this study indicated that a tape splint is an appropriate means for treatment of tibiotarsal fractures in birds weighing less than 200 g.

Diagnosis and management of inflammatory bowel disease in a harpy eagle (Harpia harpyja) with suspected fenbendazole toxicosis.

CASE DESCRIPTION A 14-year-old 4.1-kg (9.02-lb) male harpy eagle (Harpia harpyja) was evaluated because of vomiting, anorexia, lethargy, and weight loss (decrease of 0.35 kg [0.77 lb]) of 4 weeks' duration. The bird had previously been treated orally with fenbendazole after the initial onset of clinical signs. CLINICAL FINDINGS An initial CBC revealed marked heteropenia and anemia, but whole-body contrast-enhanced CT images and other diagnostic test findings were unremarkable. Clinical signs persisted, and additional diagnostic testing failed to reveal the cause. During celiotomy, a biopsy specimen of the duodenum was obtained for histologic examination, which revealed lymphoplasmacytic inflammation, consistent with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). TREATMENT AND OUTCOME Prior to histopathologic diagnosis of IBD, barium sulfate administered via gavage resulted in a temporary improvement of clinical signs. Following diagnosis of IBD, corticosteroid administration was initiated in conjunction with antifungal prophylaxis. Cessation of vomiting and a return to normal appetite occurred within 3 days. Fifteen months after cessation of corticosteroid treatment, the eagle continued to do well. CLINICAL RELEVANCE To our knowledge, this was the first report of diagnosis and management of IBD in an avian species. For the eagle of the present report, results of several diagnostic tests increased clinical suspicion of IBD, but histologic examination of an intestinal biopsy specimen was required for definitive diagnosis. Although successful in this case, steroid administration in avian species must be carefully considered. Conclusive evidence of fenbendazole toxicosis was not obtained, although it was highly suspected in this bird.

Effects of Midazolam and Midazolam-Butorphanol on Gastrointestinal Transit Time and Motility in Cockatiels (Nymphicus hollandicus).

Positive contrast gastrointestinal (GI) studies are performed frequently in avian medicine to identify GI obstruction, luminal distension, and intracoelomic mass effects. However, repeated manual restraint and radiographic positioning may result in a stress-response and associated morbidity in birds, which can be attenuated by administration of sedative drugs. In mammals, many sedative drugs have been shown to affect GI transit times and motility. In this randomized, blinded, controlled prospective study, the effects of midazolam (M; 6 mg/kg IM) and midazolam-butorphanol (MB; 3 mg/kg each IM) on GI transit times were evaluated in 12 healthy cockatiels (Nymphicus hollandicus). Iohexol (20 mL/kg) was administered by crop gavage 15 minutes after induction of sedation, and fluoroscopic images were obtained at different time points. Both sedation protocols significantly affected GI transit times and motility, and the MB protocol had more pronounced effects. Overall median (range) GI transit times were 60 (30-120), 90 (30-120), and 120 (120-180) minutes for the control, M, and MB groups, respectively. Ventricular contractions were markedly reduced with both sedation protocols, while esophageal boluses were reduced only in the MB group. Visualization of the GI tract after iohexol administration was graded highest in the control group and poorest in the MB group. Our results show that commonly used sedative drugs have significant effects on GI transit time and motility in birds. Therefore, GI transit times obtained in sedated birds should not be compared to available reference transit times obtained from unsedated animals.

Determination of Gastrointestinal Transit Times in Barred Owls ( Strix varia ) by Contrast Fluoroscopy.

Contrast imaging studies are routinely performed in avian patients when an underlying abnormality of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract is suspected. Fluoroscopy offers several advantages over traditional radiography and can be performed in conscious animals with minimal stress and restraint. Although birds of prey are commonly encountered as patients, little is known about GI transit times and contrast imaging studies in these species, especially owls. Owls are commonly encountered in zoological, educational, and wildlife settings. In this study, 12 adult barred owls ( Strix varia ) were gavage fed a 30% weight-by-volume barium suspension (25 mL/kg body weight). Fluoroscopic exposures were recorded at 5, 15, 30, 60, 120, 180, 240, and 300 minutes after administration. Overall GI transit time and transit times of various GI organs were recorded. Median (interquartile range [IQR]) overall GI transit time was 60 minutes (IQR: 19-60 minutes) and ranged from 5-120 minutes. Ventricular and small intestinal contrast filling was rapid. Ventricular emptying was complete by a median of 60 minutes (IQR: 30-120 minutes; range: 30-240 minutes), whereas small intestinal emptying was not complete in 9/12 birds by 300 minutes. Median small intestinal contraction rate was 15 per minute (IQR: 13-16 minutes; range: 10-19 minutes). Median overall GI transit time in barred owls is more rapid than mean transit times reported for psittacine birds and red-tailed hawks ( Buteo jamaicensis ). Fluoroscopy is a safe, suitable method for investigating GI motility and transit in this species.

The Effect of Manual Restraint on Physiological Parameters in Barred Owls ( Strix varia ).

Manual restraint is commonly necessary when working with avian species in medical, laboratory, and field settings. Despite their prevalence, little is known about the stress response in raptorial bird species. To further understand the effect of restraint on the stress response in birds of prey, 12 barred owls ( Strix varia ) were manually restrained for 15 minutes. Physiological parameters (cloacal temperature, respiratory rate, heart rate) were followed over time and recorded at defined points during the restraint period. Heart rate decreased significantly over the restraint period by a mean ± SD of -73 ± 46 beats/min. Respiratory rate also decreased significantly (median: -11 breaths/min, interquartile range: -8 to -18). Cloacal temperature increased significantly over time in manually restrained owls (median: +1.5°C [+2.7°F], interquartile range: 1.3°C-2.1°C [2.3°F-3.8°F]). This study is the first to document stress hyperthermia in an owl species. Similar to another raptorial bird, the red-tailed hawk ( Buteo jamaicensis ), both heart rate and respiratory rate decreased and cloacal temperature increased over time in restrained barred owls. Barred owls appear to cope differently to restraint stress when compared to psittacine species.

Changes in Physiologic Parameters and Effects of Hooding in Red-tailed Hawks ( Buteo jamaicensis ) During Manual Restraint.

Manual restraint in birds of prey is required for many veterinary and research procedures. To investigate the effects of handling stress on physiologic parameters in raptorial birds, 8 red-tailed hawks ( Buteo jamaicensis ) were manually restrained over a 15-minute period. Respiratory rate (RR), heart rate (HR), and cloacal temperature were monitored over time and recorded at defined intervals during the experiment. The effect of hooding on physiologic variables was also evaluated in a complete crossover design. Both RR and HR decreased significantly during the 15-minute restraint period (HR, -80 ± 101.4 beats/min [bpm], [P < .01]; RR, -17.5 ± 22.6 breaths/min, [P < .05]). Hooded birds had significantly lower HRs and RRs at 15 minutes of restraint (HR: 232.5 ± 26 bpm, [P < .037]; RR: 33.1 ± 6.7 breaths/min, [P < .05]) compared to birds restrained without a hood (HR: 280 ± 74.1 bpm; RR: 51.5 ± 28.8 breaths/min). Cloacal temperature increased significantly in all manually restrained birds (+2.2 ± 0.7°C, [P < .01]), with a comparable increase in hooded and nonhooded birds. In this study of the effects of manual restraint on red-tailed hawks, hooding versus nonhooding amplified the decrease in HR and RR but had no effect on stress-induced hyperthermia.

Urinalysis in chinchillas (Chinchilla lanigera).

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate urine variables in chinchillas (Chinchilla lanigera). DESIGN: Evaluation study. SAMPLE: Urine samples from 41 chinchillas. PROCEDURES: Voided urine samples were collected from clinically normal chinchillas that were exhibited during a breeder exposition. Urinalysis was performed within 1 hour after collection. Urine specific gravity (USG) was measured before and after centrifugation with a handheld veterinary refractometer. Urine dipstick analysis and microscopic sedimentation examination were performed on all samples. Additionally, a urine sulfosalicylic acid (SSA) precipitation test and quantitative protein analysis were performed on samples with sufficient volume. RESULTS: 17 of 41 (41%) samples had a USG ≥ 1.050, and USG ranged from 1.014 to > 1.060. The USG before centrifugation did not differ significantly from that after centrifugation. Protein was detected in all urine samples on dipstick analysis. The SSA precipitation test yielded negative results for all samples tested. Results of the quantitative protein analyses were not correlated with the results of the dipstick analyses or SSA tests. The recorded pH for all samples was 8.5, which was the upper limit of detection for the reagent strip. Glucose and ketones were detected in 5 and 6 samples, respectively. Crystals were observed in 28 of 41 (68%) samples; 27 of those samples contained amorphous crystals. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Urinalysis results for clinically normal chinchillas were provided. For chinchilla urine samples, measurement of USG by refractometry prior to centrifugation is acceptable and protein concentration should be determined by quantitative protein analysis rather than dipstick analysis or the SSA test.