Escudos sociales y balas mágicas para el control de la epidemia por Covid-19 en México / Social shields and magic bullets for the control of the Covid-19 epidemic in Mexico

Resumen: La pandemia por Covid-19 llegó a México en febrero de 2020. Las autoridades sanitarias promovieron medidas de prevención no farmacológicas para contrarrestar el avance de la epidemia y a finales del año se anunció la aplicación de las primeras vacunas. A nivel global y local, las vacunas marcaron un hito al erigirse como "balas mágicas", sin embargo, enfrentaron diversas dificultades como la producción masiva, la logística de distribución, la efectividad, su aplicación escalonada que priorizó a grupos vulnerables, el rechazo y la baja percepción de riesgo por parte de algunos grupos de la población; por tanto, el énfasis sobre las medidas preventivas o "escudos sociales" se diluyó con el avance de la estrategia de vacunación. Este ensayo resalta la importancia de mantener "los escudos sociales" como medidas fundamentales y complementarias a la aplicación de vacunas, puesto que, por sí solas, las "balas mágicas" presentan retos que podrían comprometer su eficacia.

Abstract: The first Covid-19 case was identified in Mexico in February 2020. Health authorities promoted non-pharmacological prevention measures to counteract the progress of the epidemic and, at the end of the year, they announced the application of the first vaccines in the country. Globally and locally, vaccines marked a milestone, positioning themselves as "magic bullets"; nevertheless, they faced several difficulties such as mass production, distribution logistics, variable effectiveness, phased implementation that prioritized vulnerable groups, rejection and low risk perception by certain groups in the population. The emphasis on population-based preventive measures or "social shields" was eventually diluted with the arrival of new vaccines. This essay highlights the importance of maintaining "social shields" as key preventive measures complementary to vaccines, since "magic bullets", on their own, present challenges that could compromise their effectiveness.

La vulnerabilidad y el riesgo: reflexiones a propósito de la pandemia del covid-19 / Vulnerabilidade e risco: reflexões sobre a pandemia de Covid-19 / Vulnerability and risk: reflections on the COVID-19 pandemic

RESUMEN A finales de diciembre 2019 se identificó el virus SARS-COV-2 como responsable de la pandemia de Covid-19. La rápida expansión de la transmisión puso al descubierto fallas estructurales de las sociedades modernas y de los sistemas de salud para prevenir y contener una amenaza sanitaria. La discusión científica se ha concentrado en la búsqueda de una vacuna, pero menos en comprender la respuesta social ante la amenaza globalizada actual y el temor a los rebrotes. En este ensayo reflexionamos, desde las ciencias sociales, sobre la importancia de vincular tres conceptos: vulnerabilidad-percepción-riesgo. Esto es necesario para desarrollar estrategias preventivas adecuadas a las circunstancias poblacionales, especialmente con la población más vulnerable, a favor de la equidad en salud.

RESUMO No final de dezembro de 2019, o vírus SARS-COV-2 foi identificado como responsável pela pandemia de Covid-19. A rápida propagação da transmissão expôs falhas estruturais das sociedades modernas e dos sistemas de saúde na prevenção e contenção de uma ameaça sanitária. A discussão científica tem se concentrado na busca por uma vacina, mas menos na compreensão da resposta social à atual ameaça global e ao medo de novos surtos. Neste ensaio refletimos, a partir das ciências sociais, sobre a importância de associar três conceitos: vulnerabilidade-percepção-risco. Isso é necessário para desenvolver estratégias preventivas adequadas às circunstâncias da população, principalmente junto à população mais vulnerável, em prol da equidade na saúde.

ABSTRACT At the end of December 2019, SARS-COV-2 virus was identified as responsible for the COVID-19 pandemic. The rapid spread of transmission exposed structural failures of modern societies and of the health systems in preventing and containing a health threat. Scientific discussion has focused on the search for a vaccine, but less on understanding the social response to the current global threat and fear of outbreaks. In this essay, we reflect, based on the social sciences, on the importance of linking three concepts: vulnerability-perception-risk. This is necessary to develop preventive strategies appropriate to population circumstances, especially with the most vulnerable population, in favor of health equity.

Self-reported hearing loss and visual impairment in adults from Central Mexico / Autorreporte de pérdida auditiva y discapacidad visual en adultos del centro de México

Abstract: Objective: To determinate the prevalence of hearing loss (HL) and visual impairment (VI) among adult population from Tlaxcala, Mexico. Materials and methods: A population-based cross-sectional study comprising persons 50 years and older was conducted in 2013. Self-reported HL was measured using the Hearing Impairment Inventory for the Elderly (SHIIE) questionnaire; VI was determined using the Snellen tumbling E chart. Results: 900 women and 611 men (mean age 66.1 years) were included. 481(31.8%) individuals had HL (415 alone and 66 combined with VI). Prevalence of HL alone and together with VI was associated with age (per two years, OR=1.03 and OR=1.18, respectively) and self-reported poor health status (OR=1.90 and OR=3.69, respectively). Conclusion: The high prevalence of these disabilities calls for the implementation of public health interventions that help to reduce its impact in the population.

Resumen: Objetivo: Determinar la prevalencia de discapacidad auditiva (DA) y visual (DV) en adultos del estado de Tlaxcala, México. Material y métodos: Estudio transversal de base poblacional realizado en 2013 que incluye sujetos ≥50 años de edad. La DA se evaluó por autorreporte con el cuestionario Hearing Impairment Inventory for the Elderly (SHIIE); la DV se midió usando la cartilla E rotatoria de Snellen. Resultados: Se evaluaron 900 mujeres y 611 hombres (media=66.1 años). El 31.8% (481) tenía DA (415 sola y 66 con DV). La prevalencia de DA sola o con DV se asoció con edad (por cada dos años, RM=1.03 y RM=1.18, respectivamente) y con autorreporte del estado de salud deficiente (RM=1.90 y RM=3.69, respectivamente). Conclusiones: Se requiere la implementación de intervenciones en salud pública que reduzcan el impacto de estas dos condiciones en la población.

Lung cancer in Mexico: findings from the Global Burden of Disease Study, 1990-2016.

OBJECTIVE: To show lung cancer (LC) mortality and disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) in Mexico. MATERIALS AND METHODS: With the visualization tools at the Global Burden of Disease Study website, we analyzed LC mortality and disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) by state, sex, socio- demographic index (SDI), age, and risk factors between 1990 and 2016. RESULTS: Mortality rate decreased from 13.9 to 9.1 per 100 000 between 1990 and 2016. This reduction is greater among men. However, deaths by LC rose from 5 478 to 8 470. DALYs rate also decreased. Northern states with higher SDI face a larger burden from LC but exhibited greater reductions compared with southern, less developed states. The burden of LC is concentrated among older population. Smoking is the main risk factor for LC. CONCLUSIONS: The burden by LC has decreased but is differential between states. LC threatens financially both the health system and individuals, since an important fraction of the population is not protected.

OBJETIVO: Mostrar la mortalidad y los años de vida saluda- bles (Avisas) perdidos por cáncer de pulmón (CP) en México. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: Con la herramienta de visualización del estudio de la Carga Global de la Enfermedad, se analizó mortalidad y Avisas por CP según diferentes criterios entre 1990 y 2016. RESULTADOS: La tasa de mortalidad disminuyó de 13.9 a 9.1 por 100 000. Dicha reducción fue mayor entre hombres. Las muertes por CP crecieron de 5 478 a 8 470. La tasa de Avisas se redujo. La carga del CP se concentra en grupos de edad avanzada. Los estados del norte, con mayor nivel sociodemográfico, enfrentan mayor carga, pero presen- taron mayores reducciones comparados con estados menos desarrollados. Fumar es el principal factor de riesgo para CP. CONCLUSIONES: La carga por CP ha disminuido pero es diferencial entre estados. El CP amenaza financieramente el sistema de salud y la población, pues una fracción importante no está protegida.

Lung cancer in Mexico: findings from the Global Burden of Disease Study, 1990-2016 / Cáncer de pulmón en México: hallazgos del estudio de Carga Global de la Enfermedad 1999-2016

Abstract: Objective: To show lung cancer (LC) mortality and disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) in Mexico. Materials and methods: With the visualization tools at the Global Burden of Disease Study website, we analyzed LC mortality and disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) by state, sex, sociodemographic index (SDI), age, and risk factors between 1990 and 2016. Results: Mortality rate decreased from 13.9 to 9.1 per 100 000 between 1990 and 2016. This reduction is greater among men. However, deaths by LC rose from 5 478 to 8 470. DALYs rate also decreased. Northern states with higher SDI face a larger burden from LC but exhibited greater reductions compared with southern, less developed states. The burden of LC is concentrated among older population. Smoking is the main risk factor for LC. Conclusions: The burden by LC has decreased but is differential between states. LC threatens financially both the health system and individuals, since an important fraction of the population is not protected.

Resumen: Objetivo: Mostrar la mortalidad y los años de vida saludables (Avisas) perdidos por cáncer de pulmón (CP) en México. Material y métodos: Con la herramienta de visualización del estudio de la Carga Global de la Enfermedad, se analizó mortalidad y Avisas por CP según diferentes criterios entre 1990 y 2016. Resultados: La tasa de mortalidad disminuyó de 13.9 a 9.1 por 100 000. Dicha reducción fue mayor entre hombres. Las muertes por CP crecieron de 5 478 a 8 470. La tasa de Avisas se redujo. La carga del CP se concentra en grupos de edad avanzada. Los estados del norte, con mayor nivel sociodemográfico, enfrentan mayor carga, pero presentaron mayores reducciones comparados con estados menos desarrollados. Fumar es el principal factor de riesgo para CP. Conclusiones: La carga por CP ha disminuido pero es diferencial entre estados. El CP amenaza financieramente el sistema de salud y la población, pues una fracción importante no está protegida.

Changing paradigms in Aedes control: considering the spatial heterogeneity of dengue transmission / Cambio de paradigma en el control de Aedes: consideración de la heterogeneidad espacial de la transmisión del dengue

ABSTRACT Current dengue vector control strategies, focusing on reactive implementation of insecticide-based interventions in response to clinically apparent disease manifestations, tend to be inefficient, short-lived, and unsustainable within the worldwide epidemiological scenario of virus epidemic recrudescence. As a result of a series of expert meetings and deliberations, a paradigm shift is occurring and a new strategy, using risk stratification at the city level in order to concentrate proactive, sustained efforts in areas at high risk for transmission, has emerged. In this article, the authors 1) outline this targeted, proactive intervention strategy, within the context of dengue epidemiology, the dynamics of its transmission, and current Aedes control strategies, and 2) provide support from published literature for the need to empirically test its impact on dengue transmission as well as on the size of disease outbreaks. As chikungunya and Zika viruses continue to expand their range, the need for a science-based, proactive approach for control of urban Aedes spp. mosquitoes will become a central focus of integrated disease management planning.

RESUMEN Las estrategias actuales de control de vectores del dengue, centradas en la ejecución reactiva de intervenciones con insecticidas en respuesta a la aparición de cuadros clínicos evidentes de la enfermedad, suelen ser ineficientes, de duración limitada e insostenibles en el contexto epidemiológico mundial, caracterizado por la recrudescencia de las epidemias virales. Como resultado de una serie de reuniones y deliberaciones entre expertos, está en proceso un cambio de paradigma y ha surgido una nueva estrategia, que consiste en estratificar el riesgo de cada ciudad para concentrar y mantener los esfuerzos proactivos donde hay un alto riesgo de transmisión. En este artículo, los autores 1) describen esta estrategia de intervención específica y proactiva dentro del contexto de las características epidemiológicas del dengue, la dinámica de su transmisión y las estrategias actuales de control de Aedes y 2) fundamentan con fuentes bibliográficas la necesidad de demostrar empíricamente las repercusiones de esta estrategia sobre la transmisión del dengue y el tamaño de los brotes. Dado que los virus del chikunguña y el Zika siguen ampliando su alcance, uno de los objetivos primordiales de la planificación de la atención integrada de estas enfermedades estará determinado por la necesidad de adoptar un enfoque científico y proactivo del control urbano de los mosquitos del género Aedes.

Dissonant health transition in the states of Mexico, 1990-2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013.

BACKGROUND: Child and maternal health outcomes have notably improved in Mexico since 1990, whereas rising adult mortality rates defy traditional epidemiological transition models in which decreased death rates occur across all ages. These trends suggest Mexico is experiencing a more complex, dissonant health transition than historically observed. Enduring inequalities between states further emphasise the need for more detailed health assessments over time. The Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study 2013 (GBD 2013) provides the comprehensive, comparable framework through which such national and subnational analyses can occur. This study offers a state-level quantification of disease burden and risk factor attribution in Mexico for the first time. METHODS: We extracted data from GBD 2013 to assess mortality, causes of death, years of life lost (YLLs), years lived with disability (YLDs), disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs), and healthy life expectancy (HALE) in Mexico and its 32 states, along with eight comparator countries in the Americas. States were grouped by Marginalisation Index scores to compare subnational burden along a socioeconomic dimension. We split extracted data by state and applied GBD methods to generate estimates of burden, and attributable burden due to behavioural, metabolic, and environmental or occupational risks. We present results for 306 causes, 2337 sequelae, and 79 risk factors. FINDINGS: From 1990 to 2013, life expectancy from birth in Mexico increased by 3·4 years (95% uncertainty interval 3·1-3·8), from 72·1 years (71·8-72·3) to 75·5 years (75·3-75·7), and these gains were more pronounced in states with high marginalisation. Nationally, age-standardised death rates fell 13·3% (11·9-14·6%) since 1990, but state-level reductions for all-cause mortality varied and gaps between life expectancy and years lived in full health, as measured by HALE, widened in several states. Progress in women's life expectancy exceeded that of men, in whom negligible improvements were observed since 2000. For many states, this trend corresponded with rising YLL rates from interpersonal violence and chronic kidney disease. Nationally, age-standardised YLL rates for diarrhoeal diseases and protein-energy malnutrition markedly decreased, ranking Mexico well above comparator countries. However, amid Mexico's progress against communicable diseases, chronic kidney disease burden rapidly climbed, with age-standardised YLL and DALY rates increasing more than 130% by 2013. For women, DALY rates from breast cancer also increased since 1990, rising 12·1% (4·6-23·1%). In 2013, the leading five causes of DALYs were diabetes, ischaemic heart disease, chronic kidney disease, low back and neck pain, and depressive disorders; the latter three were not among the leading five causes in 1990, further underscoring Mexico's rapid epidemiological transition. Leading risk factors for disease burden in 1990, such as undernutrition, were replaced by high fasting plasma glucose and high body-mass index by 2013. Attributable burden due to dietary risks also increased, accounting for more than 10% of DALYs in 2013. INTERPRETATION: Mexico achieved sizeable reductions in burden due to several causes, such as diarrhoeal diseases, and risks factors, such as undernutrition and poor sanitation, which were mainly associated with maternal and child health interventions. Yet rising adult mortality rates from chronic kidney disease, diabetes, cirrhosis, and, since 2000, interpersonal violence drove deteriorating health outcomes, particularly in men. Although state inequalities from communicable diseases narrowed over time, non-communicable diseases and injury burdens varied markedly at local levels. The dissonance with which Mexico and its 32 states are experiencing epidemiological transitions might strain health-system responsiveness and performance, which stresses the importance of timely, evidence-informed health policies and programmes linked to the health needs of each state. FUNDING: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, Instituto Nacional de Salud Pública.

The burden of cancer in Mexico, 1990-2013.

OBJECTIVE: To analyze mortality and incidence for 28 cancers by deprivation status, age and sex from 1990 to 2013. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The data and methodological approaches provided by the Global Burden of Disease (GBD 2013) were used. RESULTS: Trends from 1990 to 2013 show important changes in cancer epidemiology in Mexico. While some cancers show a decreasing trend in incidence and mortality (lung, cervical) others emerge as relevant health priorities (prostate, breast, stomach, colorectal and liver cancer). Age standardized incidence and mortality rates for all cancers are higher in the northern states while the central states show a decreasing trend in the mortality rate. The analysis show that infection related cancers like cervical or liver cancer play a bigger role in more deprived states and that cancers with risk factors related to lifestyle like colorectal cancer are more common in less marginalized states. CONCLUSIONS: The burden of cancer in Mexico shows complex regional patterns by age, sex, types of cancer and deprivation status. Creation of a national cancer registry is crucial.

The burden of cancer in Mexico, 1990-2013 / La carga del cáncer en México, 1990-2013

Abstract: Objective: To analyze mortality and incidence for 28 cancers by deprivation status, age and sex from 1990 to 2013. Materials and methods: The data and methodological approaches provided by the Global Burden of Disease (GBD 2013) were used. Results: Trends from 1990 to 2013 show important changes in cancer epidemiology in Mexico. While some cancers show a decreasing trend in incidence and mortality (lung, cervical) others emerge as relevant health priorities (prostate, breast, stomach, colorectal and liver cancer). Age standardized incidence and mortality rates for all cancers are higher in the northern states while the central states show a decreasing trend in the mortality rate. The analysis show that infection related cancers like cervical or liver cancer play a bigger role in more deprived states and that cancers with risk factors related to lifestyle like colorectal cancer are more common in less marginalized states. Conclusions: The burden of cancer in Mexico shows complex regional patterns by age, sex, types of cancer and deprivation status. Creation of a national cancer registry is crucial.

Resumen: Objetivo: Analizar la incidencia y la mortalidad de 28 tipos de cáncer por nivel de marginación, grupos de edad y sexo, de 1990 a 2013. Material y métodos: Los datos utilizados provienen del estudio de la Carga Global de Enfermedades (2013). Las entidades federativas se clasificaron de acuerdo con el índice de marginación del Consejo Nacional de Población. Resultados: Los datos muestran una tendencia decreciente para algunos cánceres (pulmón y cervical), mientras otros aparecen como prioritarios y relevantes (próstata, mama, estómago, colon e hígado). En el norte se observan incrementos regionales mayores en las tasas de incidencia y mortalidad estandarizadas por edad, mientras que en los estados del centro se observa una tendencia decreciente de la tasa de mortalidad. Conclusiones: La epidemiología del cáncer en México (en su mayoría basada en datos de mortalidad) presentan patrones regionales complejos por edad, sexo, tipo de cáncer e índice de marginación. Es vital la creación de un registro nacional para mejorar el seguimiento y evaluación de intervenciones preventivas y curativas.

Evolución de la teoría y las prácticas en el control de las enfermedades transmitidas por vector / Evolution of the theory and practices for the control of vector borne diseases

La configuración de los modelos conceptuales de la salud pública encuentran vínculos con el avance en el conocimiento de las ETV. El establecimiento de los imperios coloniales, el surgimiento de las intervenciones sanitarias a gran escala, la creación de organismos internacionales, la participación de sociedades filantrópicas en el financiamiento y organización de campañas de salud son sólo unas cuantas aportaciones al campo. Este cuerpo de conocimientos contribuyó al nacimiento y el progreso de varias disciplinas médicas, instituciones académicas y organismos internacionales dedicados a la formación de recursos humanos, la investigación y la prestación de servicios de salud, reconocidos como las bases de producción y reproducción de todo campo intelectual. La forma como se han enfrentado las ETV también ha moldeado el quehacer y las prácticas en salud pública, y su esencia ha sido adoptada para elaborar los programas de control y prevención de otros muchos problemas de salud.

The conceptual models of the public health have bonds with the advance in the knowledge of the VBDs. The establishment of the colonial empires, the sprouting of great scale sanitary interventions, the creation of tie international organisms dedicated to the promotion of the health, the participation of phylantropic institutions financing and organizing different health campaigns are only a few contributions to the field. This body of knowledge contributed to the birth and the progress of several medical disciplines, academic institutions and international organisms dedicated to the education of human resources, research and health services; establishing the production and reproduction bases of this intellectual field. The way that VBDs have been faced has also molded great part of the ideas and the practices in Public Health and its essence has been adopted to elaborate the prevention and control programs of other many problems of health.

Control de criaderos de Aedes aegypti con el programa Recicla por tu bienestar en Mérida, México / Control of Aedes aegypti breeding sites with the program Recicla por tu bienestar in Merida, Mexico

Objetivos. Determinar la importancia de los criaderos de Ae. aegypti en Mérida; evaluar el impacto del programa Recicla por tu bienestar (RxB) sobre la presencia/abundancia de éstos y la percepción de los habitantes. Material y métodos. Se calculó la importancia de los criaderos por su productividad pupal. Se realizaron muestreos pre y post RxB en colonias para cuantificar el total de recipientes/criaderos. Se aplicó una encuesta a participantes sobre la percepción sobre RxB en colonias seleccionadas. Resultados. Los botes, cubetas y diversos objetos chicos fueron los criaderos más importantes. RxB tuvo un impacto significativo en la reducción del número de recipientes (IRR=0.74), en los recipientes positivos (IRR=0.33) y en la positividad de las viviendas para Ae.aegypti (OR=0.41 j.Todos los entrevistados opinaron que RxB es necesario y la gran mayoría piensa que es útil. Conclusiones. RxB debe ser considerada una buena práctica para el control del vector del dengue.

Objectives. To determine the importance of Ae. aegypti breeding-sites in Merida;to evaluate the impact of Recicla por tu bienestar (RxB, a recycling program) on the reduction of breeding sites and the perception of participants. Materials and methods. The relative importance for pupae production of the different types of breeding-sites was determined. Pre-and post-RxB entomological surveys were performed in participant neighborhoods to evaluate the impact on total containers and positive breeding-sites. A survey on the perception of participating people about dengue prevention and control and RxB was applied. Results. Buckets/pots and "small diverse items" were the most important breeding-sites. RxB had a significant impact in the reduction of total containers (IRR = 0.74), positive containers (IRR = 0.33) and the risk of a house being positive for Ae. aegypti (OR = 0.41). All the interviewed participants referred RxB as needed and most consider it useful. Conclusions. RxB should be considered as a good practice for the dengue vector control.

Aportes y desafíos del enfoque de género en el estudio de las enfermedades transmitidas por vector / Challenges and inputs of the gender perspective to the study of vector borne diseases

Los determinantes sociales y el enfoque de género son un imperativo para comprender la vulnerabilidad de las poblaciones, sus riesgos de exposición, las condicionantes de su atención, y su organización y participación en la prevención y control de las enfermedades. El enfoque ecosistémico incorpora el estudio de los determinantes sociales y la perspectiva de género, debido a que la emergencia de las enfermedades transmitidas por vector está ligada a la urbanización, a la infraestructura sanitaria y a las condiciones materiales de las viviendas (domicilio). El género emerge como un elemento explicativo de los roles que hombres y mujeres desempeñan en los diferentes ámbitos (doméstico, comunitario y social), y que moldean los riesgos de exposición a los vectores y abren perspectivas de éxito a las estrategias de prevención, control y atención de la enfermedad. El objetivo es contribuir a la reflexión sobre el enfoque de género en el análisis de los riesgos a través de un modelo y marco conceptual propio.

The analysis of social determinants and gender within the health-disease-care process is an imperative to understand the variables that define the vulnerability of populations, their exposure risks, the determinants of their care, and the organization and participation in prevention and control programs. Ecohealth incorporates the study of the social determinants and gender perspectives because the emergency of dengue, malaria and Chagas disease are bound to unplanned urbanization, deficient sanitary infrastructure, and poor housing conditions. Gender emerges as an explanatory element of the roles played by men and women in the different scenarios (domestic, communitarian and social) that shape exposure risks to vectors and offer a better perspective of success for the prevention, control and care strategies. The objective is to contribute to the understanding on the gender perspective in the analysis of health risks through a conceptual framework.

La carga de enfermedad, lesiones, factores de riesgo y desafíos para el sistema de salud en México / Burden of disease, injuries, risk factors and challenges for the health system in Mexico

Objetivo. Presentar los resultados de la carga de enfermedad en México de 1990 a 2010 para las principales enfermedades, lesiones y factores de riesgo, por sexo. Materiales y métodos. Se realizó un análisis secundario del estudio de la carga mundial de la enfermedad 2010. Resultados. En 2010 se perdieron 26.2 millones de años de vida saludable (AVISA), 56% en hombres y 44% en mujeres. Las principales causas de AVISA en hombres fueron violencia, cardiopatía isquémica y los accidentes de tránsito. En las mujeres fueron la diabetes, la enfermedad renal crónica y la cardiopatía isquémica. Los trastornos mentales y musculoesqueléticos concentran 18% de la carga. Los factores de riesgo que más afectan a los hombres son sobrepeso/obesidad; niveles de glucosa en sangre y de presión arterial elevados; y el consumo de alcohol y tabaco (35.6% de AVISA perdidos). En las mujeres, el sobrepeso y la obesidad; glucosa elevada; hipertensión arterial; baja actividad física; y el consumo de alcohol y tabaco fueron responsables de 40% de los AVISA perdidos; en ambos sexos, la dieta contribuye con 12% de la carga. Conclusiones. El panorama epidemiológico en México demanda una urgente adecuación y modernización del sistema de salud.

Objective. To present the results of the burden of disease, injuries and risk factors in Mexico from 1990 to 2010 for the principal illnesses, injuries and risk factors by sex. Materials and methods. A secondary analysis of the study results published by the Global Burden of Disease 2010 for Mexico performed by IHME. Results. In 2010, Mexico lost 26.2 million of Disability adjusted live years (DALYs), 56 % were in male and 44 % in women. The main causes of DALYs in men are violence, ischemic heart disease and road traffic injuries. In the case of women the leading causes are diabetes, chronic kidney disease and ischemic heart diseases. The mental disorders and musculoskeletal conditions concentrate 18% of health lost. The risk factors that most affect men in Mexico are: alcohol consumption, overweight/obesity, high blood glucose levels and blood pressure and tobacco consumption (35.6 % of DALYs lost). In women, overweight and obesity, high blood sugar and blood pressure, lack of physical activity and consumption of alcohol are responsible for 40 % of DALYs lost. In both sexes the problems with diet contribute 12% of the burden. Conclusions. The epidemiological situation in Mexico, demands an urgent adaptation and modernization of the health system.

[Burden of disease, injuries, risk factors and challenges for the health system in Mexico]. / La carga de enfermedad, lesiones, factores de riesgo y desafíos para el sistema de salud en México.

OBJECTIVE: To present the results of the burden of disease, injuries and risk factors in Mexico from 1990 to 2010 for the principal illnesses, injuries and risk factors by sex. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A secondary analysis of the study results published by the Global Burden of Disease 2010 for Mexico performed by IHME. RESULTS: In 2010, Mexico lost 26.2 million of Disability adjusted live years (DALYs), 56 % were in male and 44 % in women. The main causes of DALYs in men are violence, ischemic heart disease and road traffic injuries. In the case of women the leading causes are diabetes, chronic kidney disease and ischemic heart diseases. The mental disorders and musculoskeletal conditions concentrate 18% of health lost. The risk factors that most affect men in Mexico are: alcohol consumption, overweight/obesity, high blood glucose levels and blood pressure and tobacco consumption (35.6 % of DALYs lost). In women, overweight and obesity, high blood sugar and blood pressure, lack of physical activity and consumption of alcohol are responsible for 40 % of DALYs lost. In both sexes the problems with diet contribute 12% of the burden. CONCLUSIONS: The epidemiological situation in Mexico, demands an urgent adaptation and modernization of the health system.

Cobertura efectiva de las intervenciones en salud de América Latina y el Caribe: métrica para evaluar los sistemas de salud / Effective coverage of health interventions in Latin America and the Caribbean: metrics for the assessment of health systems performance

OBJETIVO: Medir la cobertura efectiva para once intervenciones de salud en nueve países de América Latina utilizando las encuestas de demografía y salud o registros administrativos que abarcan la salud infantil, de la mujer y el adulto. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: Se seleccionaron las intervenciones y se armonizaron definiciones y métodos de cálculo de acuerdo con la información disponible para lograr la comparabilidad entre países. RESULTADOS: Chile es el país con mejores indicadores de coberturas crudas y efectivas, seguido por México y Colombia, y existen brechas importantes entre regiones, departamentos o estados. CONCLUSIONES: La métrica de cobertura efectiva es un indicador sensible que relaciona la necesidad de las intervenciones en salud, su utilización y calidad, lo que permite valorar los programas de salud al aportar datos precisos de dónde y a quién deben dirigirse los recursos y esfuerzos nacionales para que los países alcancen los propósitos y metas planteados.

OBJECTIVE: To measure effective coverage for ll health interventions in Latin America including the children's, women's and adult health, as part of program evaluation. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Interventions were selected; the definitions and calculation methods were harmonized according to the information available to ensure comparability between countries. RESULTS: Chile has better indicators of crude and effective coverage followed by Mexico and Colombia.There are significant gaps between regions, counties or states. CONCLUSIONS: The health metric on effective coverage is a sensitive indicator that links three important aspects: Coverage of health interventions, use of health services, and access to such services. Effective coverage is a good tool to evaluate health programs performance, and also provides data of where and to whom the system should address national efforts and resources to achieve the purposes and goals set.

Avances en los Objetivos de Desarrollo del Milenio 4 y 5 en Mesoamérica / Progress on the Millenium Development Goals 4 and 5 in Mesoamerica

OBJETIVOS: Presentar los avances realizados en la región mesoamericana en relación con los Objetivos de Desarrollo del Milenio 4 y 5 por medio de su análisis y discutir las intervenciones más relevantes para ayudar en el logro de estos objetivos o, por lo menos, en mantener su trayectoria. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: Se utilizaron como fuentes las estimaciones de 1990-2008 sobre mortalidad en menores de cinco años y materna, las coberturas de vacunación contra difteria, tétanos y tosferina (DTP), atención prenatal y atención del parto por personal calificado, realizadas por el Instituto de la Métrica y Evaluación en Salud y las causas de mortalidad en menores de cinco años, realizadas por el Grupo de Referencia sobre Epidemiología y Salud en la Infancia de la OMS (CHERG). RESULTADOS: La tendencia de la tasa de mortalidad de menores de cinco años (ODM-4) muestra una reducción anual de 4.2% en los últimos 18 años, comparada con la reducción global de 2.1%. En contraste, la tasa de descenso de la mortalidad materna (ODM-5) es muy heterogénea y ninguno de los países de la región alcanzará este objetivo. CONCLUSIÓN: Los esfuerzos realizados por los países en Mesoamérica han sido sustantivos en la reducción de mortalidad en menores de cinco años; sin embargo no han sido suficientes para alcanzar la meta programada por el ODM-5. Aunque la tendencia es correcta, el ritmo de descenso cumplirá parcialmente con los compromisos adquiridos para erradicar la pobreza.

OBJECTIVES: To describe the advances made by countries in the Mesoamerican region towards reaching Millenium Development Goals (MDG) 4 and 5, and discuss the most useful tasks to help the region in accomplishing or keeping track of these objectives. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The trend estimates of maternal and under 5 mortality from 1990 to 2008, the effective coverage of vaccination against diphteria, pertussis and tetanus (DPT), prenatal care and childbirth by qualified personnel were taken from the Institute of Health Metrics and Evaluation (IHME) and the causes of death for children under five were taken from the Children's Health Epidemiology Reference Group of WHO (CHERG). RESULTS: The regional trend in the rate of mortality for children under five (MDG-4) in the last 18 years shows an annual reduction of 4.2%, significantly above the global reduction of 2.1%. This suggests that countries of Mesoamerica will be able to fulfill this objective. In contrast, data for 2008 shows that the rate of reduction of maternal mortality is very heterogeneous and it is unlikely that any of the countries in the region will reach this goal. CONCLUSION: Efforts made by countries in Mesoamerica have been substantial in controlling mortality in children under five years but insufficient to achieve MDG-5. Although the tendency is in the right track the reduction rate will only partially fulfill the acquired commitments to eradicate poverty.

La estrategia para la prevención y el control integrado del dengue en Mesoamérica / Integrated prevention and control strategy for dengue in Mesoamerica

El dengue en las Américas es un problema de salud pública en ascenso. Las estrategias de control han sido poco efectivas al sustentarse en el uso intensivo de insecticidas y la poca participación de la comunidad. La Iniciativa Mesoamericana para la Prevención y el Control Integrado del Dengue integra los trabajos generados por la Estrategia de Gestión Integrada de la Organización Panamericana para la Salud (OPS) y la estrategia de estratificación de riesgos diseñada para los países de la región mesoamericana. El objetivo es reducir progresivamente la incidencia de dengue hasta un 50% de los casos en cinco años. En este documento se describen los elementos para la estratificación de riesgo, las actividades de prevención y control escalonadas en intensidad y frecuencia y los indicadores de seguimiento para el logro de los objetivos. Frente a la dispersión del problema se propone concentración de esfuerzos de control en las áreas de mayor riesgo; ante la rapidez de la transmisión se propone la oportunidad en la detección de casos; contra la expansión de los criaderos se propone la focalización de las acciones sobre los criaderos más productivos; y ante la severidad de la infección se propone un manejo clínico adecuado. Dicha estrategia se diseñó con los representantes nacionales de los programas de control para crear planes maestros que proporcionaran las bases para la prevención y el control integrado del dengue en la región mesoamericana.

Dengue in the Americas is a public health problem in ascent. The control strategies have not been effective when sustained in the intensive use of insecticides and poor community participation. The Mesoamerican Initiative for the Prevention and the Integrated Control of Dengue synthesizes the works generated by the Integrated Strategy of the Pan-American Health Organization (PAHO) and the risks stratification strategy designed by the countries of the Mesoamerican region. The objective is to progressively reduce the incidence of dengue cases until a 50% reduction is reached over a five years period. This document describes the elements for the risk stratification, the activities for prevention and control organized by levels of intensity and frequency and the indicators used to pursuit the objectives. To face the dispersion of the problem a concentration of efforts for control in the areas of greater risk is presented; the opportunity in the detection of cases is highlighted to tackle the fast dissemination of the infection; focus on the most productive breeding sites is proposed to battle against the vast dissemination of the breeding sites; and the severity of the infection must be addressed by capable clinical human resources. This strategy was designed along with the national representatives of the control programs to create master plans that provided the basis for the integrated prevention and control of dengue in the Mesoamerican region.