Two Adverse Early Life Events Induce Differential Changes in Brain CRH and Serotonin Systems in Rats along with Hyperphagia and Depression.

BACKGROUND: Different types of stress inflicted in early stages of life elevate the risk, among adult animals and humans, to develop disturbed emotional-associated behaviors, such as hyperphagia or depression. Early-life stressed (ELS) adults present hyperactivity of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, which is a risk factor associated with mood disorders. However, the prevalence of hyperphagia (17%) and depression (50%) is variable among adults that experienced ELS, suggesting that the nature, intensity, and chronicity of the stress determines the specific behavioral alteration that those individuals develop. METHODS: We analyzed corticosterone serum levels, Crh, GR, Crhr1 genes expression in the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus, amygdala, and hippocampus due to their regulatory role on HPA axis in adult rats that experienced maternal separation (MS) or limited nesting material (LNM) stress; as well as the serotonergic system activity in the same regions given its association with the corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) pathway functioning and with the hyperphagia and depression development. RESULTS: Alterations in dams' maternal care provoked an unresponsive or hyper-responsive HPA axis function to an acute stress in MS and LNM adults, respectively. The differential changes in amygdala and hippocampal CRH system seemed compensating alterations to the hypothalamic desensitized glucocorticoids receptor (GR) in MS or hypersensitive in LNM. However, both adult animals developed hyperphagia and depression-like behavior when subjected to the forced-swimming test, which helps to understand that both hypo and hypercortisolemic patients present those disorders. CONCLUSION: Different ELS types induce neuroendocrine, brain CRH and 5-hydroxytriptamine (5-HT) systems' alterations that may interact converging to develop similar maladaptive behaviors.

New Efforts to Demonstrate the Successful Use of TRH as a Therapeutic Agent.

Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) is a tripeptide that regulates the neuroendocrine thyroid axis. Moreover, its widespread brain distribution has indicated that it is a relevant neuromodulator of behaviors such as feeding, arousal, anxiety, and locomotion. Importantly, it is also a neurotrophic peptide, and thus may halt the development of neurodegenerative diseases and improve mood-related disorders. Its neuroprotective actions on those pathologies and behaviors have been limited due to its poor intestinal and blood-brain barrier permeability, and because it is rapidly degraded by a serum enzyme. As new strategies such as TRH intranasal delivery emerge, a renewed interest in the peptide has arisen. TRH analogs have proven to be safe in animals and humans, while not inducing alterations in thyroid hormones' levels. In this review, we integrate research from different approaches, aiming to demonstrate the therapeutic effects of TRH, and to summarize new efforts to prolong and facilitate the peptide's actions to improve symptoms and the progression of several pathologies.

La hormona liberadora de tirotropina (TRH) del núcleo paraventricular hipotalámico y sistema límbico como reguladora de la homeostasis energética y de la conducta alimentaria en animales con ayuno, restricción alimentaria y anorexia / Thyrotropin-releasing hormone from the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus and limbic system regulates energy homeostasis and feeding behavior in fasted, food retricted and anorexic animals

TRH expression and release from hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus (PVN) change with environmental stimuli. Fasted and food-restricted animals present decreased TRH synthesis and release, decelerating metabolic rate and utilization of energy stores, which is an advantageous adaptation of animals with nutrient deficit. Comparing thyroid axis function between prepuberal vs. adult male fasted animals, we found a greater body weight reduction than in adults (30% vs.11%) and TRH release was not decreased; TRH degradation by pituitary PPII enzyme decreased, which maintained energy waste. TRH content of fasted-prepuberal animals changed in hippocampus and nucleus accumbens, and in amygdala of adults vs. ad libitum fed animals. PVN TRH role in food-avoiding behavior was studied by comparing its expression levels and of adolescent, adult females and male animals with anorexic conduct when drinking 2.5% of NaCl solution (AN) vs. a group forced to ingest the amount of food consumed by AN (FFR); also vs. a control group fed ad libitum (C). PVN TRH mRNA and TSH serum levels increased in AN vs. C; both decreased in FFR, supporting the putative anorexigenic role for the peptide. TRH content differentially changed in hippocampus and in frontal cortex of AN and FFR, suggesting its participation in taste perception and memory association. Orexinergic and NPYergic pathways are inactive in anorexic animals. Blocking corticotrophin-releasing hormone signal by an antagonist of CRH-R2 in the PVN reverses TRH high expression and TSH serum levels in AN.

La expresión y liberación de la TRH del núcleo paraventicular hipotalámico (NPV) cambia con estímulos ambientales; en ayuno y restricción de alimentos la liberación del péptido disminuye, reduciéndose la tasa del metabolismo y la degradación de reservas energéticas. Esto es una adaptación ventajosa para los animales con balance negativo de energía. Al comparar el contenido de TRH en la eminencia media entre animales prepúberes y adultos en ayuno de 48 horas, observamos que los jóvenes no tienen una adaptación al déficit de nutrimentos. Su peso baja más que en adultos (30% vs. 11%) y la liberación de TRH no disminuye; la degradación de TRH por PPII en la adenohipófisis (PPII) disminuye, manteniéndose el gasto energético. El contenido de TRH de animales prepúberes en ayuno cambió en el hipocampo y en el núcleo accumbens, así como en la amígdala de los adultos comparado contra los animales con alimentación ad libitum. La TRH se ha propuesto como agente anorexigénico. Evaluamos su contenido y expresión en el NPV de animales que evitan el alimento al beber una solución de NaCl (2.5%)(AN), en otros con restricción de alimento forzada (RAF) que ingieren la misma cantidad que AN y en aquéllos (C) con alimentación ad libitum. La síntesis de TRH en el NPV y el contenido sérico de TSH disminuyen en RAF pero aumentan en AN. La vía orexinérgica y la de NPY de AN están inactivas. La inyección de un antagonista a CRH revierte las alteraciones de TRH y TSH y atenúa la anorexia de AN.