Genetic Architecture of Atherosclerosis in Mice: A Systems Genetics Analysis of Common Inbred Strains.

Common forms of atherosclerosis involve multiple genetic and environmental factors. While human genome-wide association studies have identified numerous loci contributing to coronary artery disease and its risk factors, these studies are unable to control environmental factors or examine detailed molecular traits in relevant tissues. We now report a study of natural variations contributing to atherosclerosis and related traits in over 100 inbred strains of mice from the Hybrid Mouse Diversity Panel (HMDP). The mice were made hyperlipidemic by transgenic expression of human apolipoprotein E-Leiden (APOE-Leiden) and human cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP). The mice were examined for lesion size and morphology as well as plasma lipid, insulin and glucose levels, and blood cell profiles. A subset of mice was studied for plasma levels of metabolites and cytokines. We also measured global transcript levels in aorta and liver. Finally, the uptake of acetylated LDL by macrophages from HMDP mice was quantitatively examined. Loci contributing to the traits were mapped using association analysis, and relationships among traits were examined using correlation and statistical modeling. A number of conclusions emerged. First, relationships among atherosclerosis and the risk factors in mice resemble those found in humans. Second, a number of trait-loci were identified, including some overlapping with previous human and mouse studies. Third, gene expression data enabled enrichment analysis of pathways contributing to atherosclerosis and prioritization of candidate genes at associated loci in both mice and humans. Fourth, the data provided a number of mechanistic inferences; for example, we detected no association between macrophage uptake of acetylated LDL and atherosclerosis. Fifth, broad sense heritability for atherosclerosis was much larger than narrow sense heritability, indicating an important role for gene-by-gene interactions. Sixth, stepwise linear regression showed that the combined variations in plasma metabolites, including LDL/VLDL-cholesterol, trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO), arginine, glucose and insulin, account for approximately 30 to 40% of the variation in atherosclerotic lesion area. Overall, our data provide a rich resource for studies of complex interactions underlying atherosclerosis.

P2Y6 receptor potentiates pro-inflammatory responses in macrophages and exhibits differential roles in atherosclerotic lesion development.

BACKGROUND: P2Y(6), a purinergic receptor for UDP, is enriched in atherosclerotic lesions and is implicated in pro-inflammatory responses of key vascular cell types and macrophages. Evidence for its involvement in atherogenesis, however, has been lacking. Here we use cell-based studies and three murine models of atherogenesis to evaluate the impact of P2Y(6) deficiency on atherosclerosis. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Cell-based studies in 1321N1 astrocytoma cells, which lack functional P2Y(6) receptors, showed that exogenous expression of P2Y(6) induces a robust, receptor- and agonist-dependent secretion of inflammatory mediators IL-8, IL-6, MCP-1 and GRO1. P2Y(6)-mediated inflammatory responses were also observed, albeit to a lesser extent, in macrophages endogenously expressing P2Y(6) and in acute peritonitis models of inflammation. To evaluate the role of P2Y(6) in atherosclerotic lesion development, we used P2Y(6)-deficient mice in three mouse models of atherosclerosis. A 43% reduction in aortic arch plaque was observed in high fat-fed LDLR knockout mice lacking P2Y(6) receptors in bone marrow-derived cells. In contrast, no effect on lesion development was observed in fat-fed whole body P2Y(6)xLDLR double knockout mice. Interestingly, in a model of enhanced vascular inflammation using angiotensin II, P2Y(6) deficiency enhanced formation of aneurysms and exhibited a trend towards increased atherosclerosis in the aorta of LDLR knockout mice. CONCLUSIONS: P2Y(6) receptor augments pro-inflammatory responses in macrophages and exhibits a pro-atherogenic role in hematopoietic cells. However, the overall impact of whole body P2Y(6) deficiency on atherosclerosis appears to be modest and could reflect additional roles of P2Y(6) in vascular disease pathophysiologies, such as aneurysm formation.

11ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 gene knockout attenuates atherosclerosis and in vivo foam cell formation in hyperlipidemic apoE⁻/⁻ mice.

BACKGROUND: Chronic glucocorticoid excess has been linked to increased atherosclerosis and general cardiovascular risk in humans. The enzyme 11ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 (11ßHSD1) increases active glucocorticoid levels within tissues by catalyzing the conversion of cortisone to cortisol. Pharmacological inhibition of 11ßHSD1 has been shown to reduce atherosclerosis in murine models. However, the cellular and molecular details for this effect have not been elucidated. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: To examine the role of 11ßHSD1 in atherogenesis, 11ßHSD1 knockout mice were created on the pro-atherogenic apoE⁻/⁻ background. Following 14 weeks of Western diet, aortic cholesterol levels were reduced 50% in 11ßHSD1⁻/⁻/apoE⁻/⁻ mice vs. 11ßHSD1⁺/⁺/apoE⁻/⁻ mice without changes in plasma cholesterol. Aortic 7-ketocholesterol content was reduced 40% in 11ßHSD1⁻/⁻/apoE⁻/⁻ mice vs. control. In the aortic root, plaque size, necrotic core area and macrophage content were reduced ∼30% in 11ßHSD1⁻/⁻/apoE⁻/⁻mice. Bone marrow transplantation from 11ßHSD1⁻/⁻/apoE⁻/⁻ mice into apoE⁻/⁻ recipients reduced plaque area 39-46% in the thoracic aorta. In vivo foam cell formation was evaluated in thioglycollate-elicited peritoneal macrophages from 11ßHSD1⁺/⁺/apoE⁻/⁻ and 11ßHSD1⁻/⁻/apoE⁻/⁻ mice fed a Western diet for ∼5 weeks. Foam cell cholesterol levels were reduced 48% in 11ßHSD1⁻/⁻/apoE⁻/⁻ mice vs. control. Microarray profiling of peritoneal macrophages revealed differential expression of genes involved in inflammation, stress response and energy metabolism. Several toll-like receptors (TLRs) were downregulated in 11ßHSD1⁻/⁻/apoE⁻/⁻ mice including TLR 1, 3 and 4. Cytokine release from 11ßHSD1⁻/⁻/apoE⁻/⁻-derived peritoneal foam cells was attenuated following challenge with oxidized LDL. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that 11ßHSD1 inhibition may have the potential to limit plaque development at the vessel wall and regulate foam cell formation independent of changes in plasma lipids. The diminished cytokine response to oxidized LDL stimulation is consistent with the reduction in TLR expression and suggests involvement of 11ßHSD1 in modulating binding of pro-atherogenic TLR ligands.

CHAC1/MGC4504 is a novel proapoptotic component of the unfolded protein response, downstream of the ATF4-ATF3-CHOP cascade.

To understand pathways mediating the inflammatory responses of human aortic endothelial cells to oxidized phospholipids, we previously used a combination of genetics and genomics to model a coexpression network encompassing >1000 genes. CHAC1 (cation transport regulator-like protein 1), a novel gene regulated by ox-PAPC (oxidized 1-palmitoyl-2-arachidonyl-sn-3-glycero-phosphorylcholine), was identified in a co-regulated group of genes enriched for components of the ATF4 (activating transcription factor 4) arm of the unfolded protein response pathway. Herein, we characterize the role of CHAC1 and validate the network model. We first define the activation of CHAC1 mRNA by chemical unfolded protein response-inducers, but not other cell stressors. We then define activation of CHAC1 by the ATF4-ATF3-CHOP (C/EBP homologous protein), and not parallel XBP1 (X box-binding protein 1) or ATF6 pathways, using siRNA and/or overexpression plasmids. To examine the subset of genes downstream of CHAC1, we used expression microarray analysis to identify a list of 227 differentially regulated genes. We validated the activation of TNFRSF6B (tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily, member 6b), a FASL decoy receptor, in cells treated with CHAC1 small interfering RNA. Finally, we showed that CHAC1 overexpression enhanced apoptosis, while CHAC1 small interfering RNA suppressed apoptosis, as determined by TUNEL, PARP (poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase) cleavage, and AIF (apoptosis-inducing factor) nuclear translocation.

ATF4-dependent transcription is a key mechanism in VEGF up-regulation by oxidized phospholipids: critical role of oxidized sn-2 residues in activation of unfolded protein response.

We have shown previously that oxidized phospholipids (OxPLs), known to accumulate in atherosclerotic vessels, stimulate angiogenesis via induction of autocrine mediators, such as vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). We now address the pathways mediating up-regulation of VEGF in human endothelial cells treated with OxPLs. Analysis of structure-function relationship using individual species of OxPLs demonstrated a close relation between induction of VEGF and activation of the unfolded protein response (UPR). Inducers of UPR up-regulated VEGF, whereas inhibition of UPR by chemical chaperones or knock-down of cochaperone HTJ-1 inhibited elevation of VEGF mRNA induced by OxPLs. OxPLs induced protein expression of activating transcription factor-4 (ATF4), an important effector of UPR. Expression levels of VEGF in OxPL-treated cells strongly correlated with induction of the ATF4 target genes ATF3 and TRB3. Knocking down ATF4 was paralleled by loss of VEGF induction by OxPLs. Chromatin immunoprecipitation demonstrated that OxPLs stimulated binding of ATF4 to a regulatory site in the VEGFA gene. Taken together, these data characterize UPR and more specifically its ATF4 branch as an important mechanism mediating up-regulation of VEGF by OxPLs, and allow hypothesizing that the UPR cascade might play a role in pathologic angiogenesis in atherosclerotic plaques.