RESUMO
Polyploidy and symbiotic Epichloë fungal endophytes are common and heritable characteristics that can facilitate environmental range expansion in grasses. Here we examined geographic patterns of polyploidy and the frequency of fungal endophyte colonized plants in 29 Festuca rubra L. populations from eight geographic sites across latitudes from Spain to northernmost Finland and Greenland. Ploidy seemed to be positively and negatively correlated with latitude and productivity, respectively. However, the correlations were nonlinear; 84% of the plants were hexaploids (2n = 6x = 42), and the positive correlation between ploidy level and latitude is the result of only four populations skewing the data. In the southernmost end of the gradient 86% of the plants were tetraploids (2n = 4x = 28), whereas in the northernmost end of the gradient one population had only octoploid plants (2n = 8x = 56). Endophytes were detected in 22 out of the 29 populations. Endophyte frequencies varied among geographic sites, and populations and habitats within geographic sites irrespective of ploidy, latitude or productivity. The highest overall endophyte frequencies were found in the southernmost end of the gradient, Spain, where 69% of plants harbored endophytes. In northern Finland, endophytes were detected in 30% of grasses but endophyte frequencies varied among populations from 0% to 75%, being higher in meadows compared to riverbanks. The endophytes were detected in 36%, 30% and 27% of the plants in Faroe Islands, Iceland and Switzerland, respectively. Practically all examined plants collected from southern Finland and Greenland were endophyte-free, whereas in other geographic sites endophyte frequencies were highly variable among populations. Common to all populations with high endophyte frequencies is heavy vertebrate grazing. We propose that the detected endophyte frequencies and ploidy levels mirror past distribution history of F. rubra after the last glaciation period, and local adaptations to past or prevailing selection forces such as vertebrate grazing.
Assuntos
Endófitos/genética , Epichloe/genética , Festuca/genética , Ploidias , Dinamarca , Ecossistema , Endófitos/crescimento & desenvolvimento , Epichloe/crescimento & desenvolvimento , Festuca/crescimento & desenvolvimento , Festuca/microbiologia , Finlândia , Genética Populacional , Islândia , Espanha , Suíça , Simbiose/genéticaRESUMO
Resumen Los medicamentos constituyen un alto porcentaje del gasto en salud de los hogares, por eso, tener un sistema progresivo de financiamiento de medicamentos es fundamental para lograr un sistema de salud equitativo. Se ha propuesto que los determinantes de la equidad en el financiamiento son socioeconómicos, demográficos y asociados a la intervención pública, sin embargo, se ha avanzado poco en su evaluación empírica y en la cuantificación de su importancia relativa. En este trabajo estimamos regresiones por cuantiles a nivel provincial en Argentina y encontramos que la población mayor a 65 años, el desempleo, la existencia de laboratorios públicos de producción de medicamentos, las transferencias de tratamientos y la orientación del sistema de salud a la atención primaria, son importantes predictores de la progresividad en el esquema de pagos. Ingresos bajos, instituciones débiles, infraestructura y provisión de servicios insuficientes redundan en respuestas sociales más regresivas a las necesidades sanitarias, empeorando las condiciones de vida y limitando las oportunidades de desarrollo.
Abstract Medicines are an important part of household health spending. A progressive system for financing drugs is thus essential for an equitable health system. Some authors have proposed that the determinants of equity in drug financing are socioeconomic, demographic, and associated with public interventions, but little progress has been made in the empirical evaluation and quantification of their relative importance. The current study estimated quantile regressions at the provincial level in Argentina and found that old age (> 65 years), unemployment, the existence of a public pharmaceutical laboratory, treatment transfers, and a health system orientated to primary care were important predictors of progressive payment schemes. Low income, weak institutions, and insufficient infrastructure and services were associated with the most regressive social responses to health needs, thereby aggravating living conditions and limiting development opportunities.
Resumo Medicamentos são uma parte importante dos gastos em saúde do agregado familiar, portanto, ter um sistema progressivo de financiamento de medicamentos é fundamental para alcançar um sistema de saúde equitativo. Foi proposto que os determinantes da equidade no financiamento são fatores socioeconômicos, demográficos e ligados à intervenção pública, mas se avançou pouco em sua avaliação empírica e na quantificação de sua importância relativa. Neste trabalho, estimamos regressões por quantis no nível provincial na Argentina e encontramos que a população maior de 65 anos, o desemprego, a existência de laboratório de produção pública de medicamentos, transferências de tratamentos e orientação do sistema de saúde para atenção primária são importantes preditores da progressividade dos sistemas de pagamento. Baixa renda, instituições fracas, infraestrutura e oferta insuficiente de serviços resultam em mais regressivas respostas sociais às necessidades de saúde, agravando as condições de vida e limitando as oportunidades de desenvolvimento.