Spatial analysis of recurrent glioblastoma reveals perivascular niche organization.

Tumor evolution is driven by genetic variation; however, it is the tumor microenvironment (TME) that provides the selective pressure contributing to evolution in cancer. Despite high histopathological heterogeneity within glioblastoma (GBM), the most aggressive brain tumor, the interactions between the genetically distinct GBM cells and the surrounding TME are not fully understood. To address this, we analyzed matched primary and recurrent GBM archival tumor tissues with imaging-based techniques aimed to simultaneously evaluate tumor tissues for the presence of hypoxic, angiogenic, and inflammatory niches, extracellular matrix (ECM) organization, TERT promoter mutational status, and several oncogenic amplifications on the same slide and location. We found that the relationships between genetic and TME diversity are different in primary and matched recurrent tumors. Interestingly, the texture of the ECM, identified by label-free reflectance imaging, was predictive of single-cell genetic traits present in the tissue. Moreover, reflectance of ECM revealed structured organization of the perivascular niche in recurrent GBM, enriched in immunosuppressive macrophages. Single-cell spatial transcriptomics further confirmed the presence of the niche-specific macrophage populations and identified interactions between endothelial cells, perivascular fibroblasts, and immunosuppressive macrophages. Our results underscore the importance of GBM tissue organization in tumor evolution and highlight genetic and spatial dependencies.

Peristromal niches protect lung cancers from targeted therapies through a combined effect of multiple molecular mediators.

Targeted therapies directed against oncogenic signaling addictions, such as inhibitors of ALK in ALK+ NSCLC often induce strong and durable clinical responses. However, they are not curative in metastatic cancers, as some tumor cells persist through therapy, eventually developing resistance. Therapy sensitivity can reflect not only cell-intrinsic mechanisms but also inputs from stromal microenvironment. Yet, the contribution of tumor stroma to therapeutic responses in vivo remains poorly defined. To address this gap of knowledge, we assessed the contribution of stroma-mediated resistance to therapeutic responses to the frontline ALK inhibitor alectinib in xenograft models of ALK+ NSCLC. We found that stroma-proximal tumor cells are partially protected against cytostatic effects of alectinib. This effect is observed not only in remission, but also during relapse, indicating the strong contribution of stroma-mediated resistance to both persistence and resistance. This therapy-protective effect of the stromal niche reflects a combined action of multiple mechanisms, including growth factors and extracellular matrix components. Consequently, despite improving alectinib responses, suppression of any individual resistance mechanism was insufficient to fully overcome the protective effect of stroma. Focusing on shared collateral sensitivity of persisters offered a superior therapeutic benefit, especially when using an antibody-drug conjugate with bystander effect to limit therapeutic escape. These findings indicate that stroma-mediated resistance might be the major contributor to both residual and progressing disease and highlight the limitation of focusing on suppressing a single resistance mechanism at a time.

Mistic: An open-source multiplexed image t-SNE viewer.

Understanding the complex ecology of a tumor tissue and the spatiotemporal relationships between its cellular and microenvironment components is becoming a key component of translational research, especially in immuno-oncology. The generation and analysis of multiplexed images from patient samples is of paramount importance to facilitate this understanding. Here, we present Mistic, an open-source multiplexed image t-SNE viewer that enables the simultaneous viewing of multiple 2D images rendered using multiple layout options to provide an overall visual preview of the entire dataset. In particular, the positions of the images can be t-SNE or UMAP coordinates. This grouped view of all images allows an exploratory understanding of the specific expression pattern of a given biomarker or collection of biomarkers across all images, helps to identify images expressing a particular phenotype, and can help select images for subsequent downstream analysis. Currently, there is no freely available tool to generate such image t-SNEs.

Developing tools for analyzing and viewing multiplexed images.

Dr. Prabhakaran and Dr Gatenbee are research scientists in Anderson's lab and have developed Mistic, a publicly available tool that simultaneously views multiplexed images and assists in gaining biological and clinical insights into patients' data. They discuss the role of mathematical modeling in translational cancer research and clinical decision making and describe how mathematical modeling fits into the data science definition.

Ovarian cancer immunogenicity is governed by a narrow subset of progenitor tissue-resident memory T cells.

Despite repeated associations between T cell infiltration and outcome, human ovarian cancer remains poorly responsive to immunotherapy. We report that the hallmarks of tumor recognition in ovarian cancer-infiltrating T cells are primarily restricted to tissue-resident memory (TRM) cells. Single-cell RNA/TCR/ATAC sequencing of 83,454 CD3+CD8+CD103+CD69+ TRM cells and immunohistochemistry of 122 high-grade serous ovarian cancers shows that only progenitor (TCF1low) tissue-resident T cells (TRMstem cells), but not recirculating TCF1+ T cells, predict ovarian cancer outcome. TRMstem cells arise from transitional recirculating T cells, which depends on antigen affinity/persistence, resulting in oligoclonal, trogocytic, effector lymphocytes that eventually become exhausted. Therefore, ovarian cancer is indeed an immunogenic disease, but that depends on ∼13% of CD8+ tumor-infiltrating T cells (∼3% of CD8+ clonotypes), which are primed against high-affinity antigens and maintain waves of effector TRM-like cells. Our results define the signature of relevant tumor-reactive T cells in human ovarian cancer, which could be applicable to other tumors with unideal mutational burden.

Immunosuppressive niche engineering at the onset of human colorectal cancer.

The evolutionary dynamics of tumor initiation remain undetermined, and the interplay between neoplastic cells and the immune system is hypothesized to be critical in transformation. Colorectal cancer (CRC) presents a unique opportunity to study the transition to malignancy as pre-cancers (adenomas) and early-stage cancers are frequently resected. Here, we examine tumor-immune eco-evolutionary dynamics from pre-cancer to carcinoma using a computational model, ecological analysis of digital pathology data, and neoantigen prediction in 62 patient samples. Modeling predicted recruitment of immunosuppressive cells would be the most common driver of transformation. As predicted, ecological analysis reveals that progressed adenomas co-localized with immunosuppressive cells and cytokines, while benign adenomas co-localized with a mixed immune response. Carcinomas converge to a common immune "cold" ecology, relaxing selection against immunogenicity and high neoantigen burdens, with little evidence for PD-L1 overexpression driving tumor initiation. These findings suggest re-engineering the immunosuppressive niche may prove an effective immunotherapy in CRC.

IgA-Dominated Humoral Immune Responses Govern Patients' Outcome in Endometrial Cancer.

Recent studies suggest that B cells could play an important role in the tumor microenvironment. However, the role of humoral responses in endometrial cancer remains insufficiently investigated. Using a cohort of 107 patients with different histological subtypes of endometrial carcinoma, we evaluated the role of coordinated humoral and cellular adaptive immune responses in endometrial cancer. Concomitant accumulation of T, B, and plasma cells at tumor beds predicted better survival. However, only B-cell markers corresponded with prolonged survival specifically in high-grade endometrioid type and serous tumors. Immune protection was associated with class-switched IgA and, to a lesser extent, IgG. Expressions of polymeric immunoglobulin receptor (pIgR) by tumor cells and its occupancy by IgA were superior predictors of outcome and correlated with defects in methyl-directed DNA mismatch repair. Mechanistically, pIgR-dependent, antigen-independent IgA occupancy drove activation of inflammatory pathways associated with IFN and TNF signaling in tumor cells, along with apoptotic and endoplasmic reticulum stress pathways, while thwarting DNA repair mechanisms. Together, these findings suggest that coordinated humoral and cellular immune responses, characterized by IgA:pIgR interactions in tumor cells, determine the progression of human endometrial cancer as well as the potential for effective immunotherapies. SIGNIFICANCE: This study provides new insights into the crucial role of humoral immunity in human endometrial cancer, providing a rationale for designing novel immunotherapies against this prevalent malignancy. See related commentary by Osorio and Zamarin, p. 766.

Normal tissue architecture determines the evolutionary course of cancer.

Cancer growth can be described as a caricature of the renewal process of the tissue of origin, where the tissue architecture has a strong influence on the evolutionary dynamics within the tumor. Using a classic, well-studied model of tumor evolution (a passenger-driver mutation model) we systematically alter spatial constraints and cell mixing rates to show how tissue structure influences functional (driver) mutations and genetic heterogeneity over time. This approach explores a key mechanism behind both inter-patient and intratumoral tumor heterogeneity: competition for space. Time-varying competition leads to an emergent transition from Darwinian premalignant growth to subsequent invasive neutral tumor growth. Initial spatial constraints determine the emergent mode of evolution (Darwinian to neutral) without a change in cell-specific mutation rate or fitness effects. Driver acquisition during the Darwinian precancerous stage may be modulated en route to neutral evolution by the combination of two factors: spatial constraints and limited cellular mixing. These two factors occur naturally in ductal carcinomas, where the branching topology of the ductal network dictates spatial constraints and mixing rates.

IgA transcytosis and antigen recognition govern ovarian cancer immunity.

Most ovarian cancers are infiltrated by prognostically relevant activated T cells1-3, yet exhibit low response rates to immune checkpoint inhibitors4. Memory B cell and plasma cell infiltrates have previously been associated with better outcomes in ovarian cancer5,6, but the nature and functional relevance of these responses are controversial. Here, using 3 independent cohorts that in total comprise 534 patients with high-grade serous ovarian cancer, we show that robust, protective humoral responses are dominated by the production of polyclonal IgA, which binds to polymeric IgA receptors that are universally expressed on ovarian cancer cells. Notably, tumour B-cell-derived IgA redirects myeloid cells against extracellular oncogenic drivers, which causes tumour cell death. In addition, IgA transcytosis through malignant epithelial cells elicits transcriptional changes that antagonize the RAS pathway and sensitize tumour cells to cytolytic killing by T cells, which also contributes to hindering malignant progression. Thus, tumour-antigen-specific and -antigen-independent IgA responses antagonize the growth of ovarian cancer by governing coordinated tumour cell, T cell and B cell responses. These findings provide a platform for identifying targets that are spontaneously recognized by intratumoural B-cell-derived antibodies, and suggest that immunotherapies that augment B cell responses may be more effective than approaches that focus on T cells, particularly for malignancies that are resistant to checkpoint inhibitors.

Histoecology: Applying Ecological Principles and Approaches to Describe and Predict Tumor Ecosystem Dynamics Across Space and Time.

Cancer cells exist within a complex spatially structured ecosystem composed of resources and different cell types. As the selective pressures imposed by this environment determine the fate of cancer cells, an improved understanding of how this ecosystem evolves will better elucidate how tumors grow and respond to therapy. State of the art imaging methods can now provide highly resolved descriptions of the microenvironment, yielding the data required for a thorough study of its role in tumor growth and treatment resistance. The field of landscape ecology has been studying such species-environment relationship for decades, and offers many tools and perspectives that cancer researchers could greatly benefit from. Here, we discuss one such tool, species distribution modeling (SDM), that has the potential to, among other things, identify critical environmental factors that drive tumor evolution and predict response to therapy. SDMs only scratch the surface of how ecological theory and methods can be applied to cancer, and we believe further integration will take cancer research in exciting new and productive directions. Significance: Here we describe how species distribution modeling can be used to quantitatively describe the complex relationship between tumor cells and their microenvironment. Such a description facilitates a deeper understanding of cancers eco-evolutionary dynamics, which in turn sheds light on the factors that drive tumor growth and response to treatment.

Evolutionary dynamics of neoantigens in growing tumors.

Cancers accumulate mutations that lead to neoantigens, novel peptides that elicit an immune response, and consequently undergo evolutionary selection. Here we establish how negative selection shapes the clonality of neoantigens in a growing cancer by constructing a mathematical model of neoantigen evolution. The model predicts that, without immune escape, tumor neoantigens are either clonal or at low frequency; hypermutated tumors can only establish after the evolution of immune escape. Moreover, the site frequency spectrum of somatic variants under negative selection appears more neutral as the strength of negative selection increases, which is consistent with classical neutral theory. These predictions are corroborated by the analysis of neoantigen frequencies and immune escape in exome and RNA sequencing data from 879 colon, stomach and endometrial cancers.

Hybrid Automata Library: A flexible platform for hybrid modeling with real-time visualization.

The Hybrid Automata Library (HAL) is a Java Library developed for use in mathematical oncology modeling. It is made of simple, efficient, generic components that can be used to model complex spatial systems. HAL's components can broadly be classified into: on- and off-lattice agent containers, finite difference diffusion fields, a GUI building system, and additional tools and utilities for computation and data collection. These components are designed to operate independently and are standardized to make them easy to interface with one another. As a demonstration of how modeling can be simplified using our approach, we have included a complete example of a hybrid model (a spatial model with interacting agent-based and PDE components). HAL is a useful asset for researchers who wish to build performant 1D, 2D and 3D hybrid models in Java, while not starting entirely from scratch. It is available on GitHub at https://github.com/MathOnco/HAL under the MIT License. HAL requires the Java JDK version 1.8 or later to compile and run the source code.

Correction: Acidity promotes tumour progression by altering macrophage phenotype in prostate cancer.

An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via a link at the top of the paper.

EvoFreq: visualization of the Evolutionary Frequencies of sequence and model data.

BACKGROUND: High throughput sequence data has provided in depth means of molecular characterization of populations. When recorded at numerous time steps, such data can reveal the evolutionary dynamics of the population under study by tracking the changes in genotype frequencies over time. This necessitates a simple and flexible means of visualizing an increasingly complex set of data. RESULTS: Here we offer EvoFreq as a comprehensive tool set to visualize the evolutionary and population frequency dynamics of clones at a single point in time or as population frequencies over time using a variety of informative methods. EvoFreq expands substantially on previous means of visualizing the clonal, temporal dynamics and offers users a range of options for displaying their sequence or model data. CONCLUSIONS: EvoFreq, implemented in R with robust user options and few dependencies, offers a high-throughput means of quickly building, and interrogating the temporal dynamics of hereditary information across many systems. EvoFreq is freely available via https://github.com/MathOnco/EvoFreq.

Acidity promotes tumour progression by altering macrophage phenotype in prostate cancer.

BACKGROUND: Tumours rapidly ferment glucose to lactic acid even in the presence of oxygen, and coupling high glycolysis with poor perfusion leads to extracellular acidification. We hypothesise that acidity, independent from lactate, can augment the pro-tumour phenotype of macrophages. METHODS: We analysed publicly available data of human prostate cancer for linear correlation between macrophage markers and glycolysis genes. We used zwitterionic buffers to adjust the pH in series of in vitro experiments. We then utilised subcutaneous and transgenic tumour models developed in C57BL/6 mice as well as computer simulations to correlate tumour progression with macrophage infiltration and to delineate role of acidity. RESULTS: Activating macrophages at pH 6.8 in vitro enhanced an IL-4-driven phenotype as measured by gene expression, cytokine profiling, and functional assays. These results were recapitulated in vivo wherein neutralising intratumoural acidity reduced the pro-tumour phenotype of macrophages, while also decreasing tumour incidence and invasion in the TRAMP model of prostate cancer. These results were recapitulated using an in silico mathematical model that simulate macrophage responses to environmental signals. By turning off acid-induced cellular responses, our in silico mathematical modelling shows that acid-resistant macrophages can limit tumour progression. CONCLUSIONS: This study suggests that tumour acidity contributes to prostate carcinogenesis by altering the state of macrophage activation.

NeoPredPipe: high-throughput neoantigen prediction and recognition potential pipeline.

BACKGROUND: Next generation sequencing has yielded an unparalleled means of quickly determining the molecular make-up of patient tumors. In conjunction with emerging, effective immunotherapeutics for a number of cancers, this rapid data generation necessitates a paired high-throughput means of predicting and assessing neoantigens from tumor variants that may stimulate immune response. RESULTS: Here we offer NeoPredPipe (Neoantigen Prediction Pipeline) as a contiguous means of predicting putative neoantigens and their corresponding recognition potentials for both single and multi-region tumor samples. NeoPredPipe is able to quickly provide summary information for researchers, and clinicians alike, on predicted neoantigen burdens while providing high-level insights into tumor heterogeneity given somatic mutation calls and, optionally, patient HLA haplotypes. Given an example dataset we show how NeoPredPipe is able to rapidly provide insights into neoantigen heterogeneity, burden, and immune stimulation potential. CONCLUSIONS: Through the integration of widely adopted tools for neoantigen discovery NeoPredPipe offers a contiguous means of processing single and multi-region sequence data. NeoPredPipe is user-friendly and adaptable for high-throughput performance. NeoPredPipe is freely available at https://github.com/MathOnco/NeoPredPipe .

The evolutionary landscape of colorectal tumorigenesis.

The evolutionary events that cause colorectal adenomas (benign) to progress to carcinomas (malignant) remain largely undetermined. Using multi-region genome and exome sequencing of 24 benign and malignant colorectal tumours, we investigate the evolutionary fitness landscape occupied by these neoplasms. Unlike carcinomas, advanced adenomas frequently harbour sub-clonal driver mutations-considered to be functionally important in the carcinogenic process-that have not swept to fixation, and have relatively high genetic heterogeneity. Carcinomas are distinguished from adenomas by widespread aneusomies that are usually clonal and often accrue in a 'punctuated' fashion. We conclude that adenomas evolve across an undulating fitness landscape, whereas carcinomas occupy a sharper fitness peak, probably owing to stabilizing selection.

Crohn's disease and genetic hitchhiking at IBD5.

Inflammatory bowel disease 5 (IBD5) is a 250 kb haplotype on chromosome 5 that is associated with an increased risk of Crohn's disease in Europeans. The OCTN1 gene is centrally located on IBD5 and encodes a transporter of the antioxidant ergothioneine (ET). The 503F variant of OCTN1 is strongly associated with IBD5 and is a gain-of-function mutation that increases absorption of ET. Although 503F has been implicated as the variant potentially responsible for Crohn's disease susceptibility at IBD5, there is little evidence beyond statistical association to support its role in disease causation. We hypothesize that 503F is a recent adaptation in Europeans that swept to relatively high frequency and that disease association at IBD5 results not from 503F itself, but from one or more nearby hitchhiking variants, in the genes IRF1 or IL5. To test for evidence of recent positive selection on the 503F allele, we employed the iHS statistic, which was significant in the European CEU HapMap population (P=0.0007) and European Human Genome Diversity Panel populations (P≤0.01). To evaluate the hypothesis of disease-variant hitchhiking, we performed haplotype association tests on high-density microarray data in a sample of 1,868 Crohn's disease cases and 5,550 controls. We found that 503F haplotypes with recombination breakpoints between OCTN1 and IRF1 or IL5 were not associated with disease (odds ratio [OR]: 1.05, P=0.21). In contrast, we observed strong disease association for 503F haplotypes with no recombination between these three genes (OR: 1.24, P=2.6×10(-8)), as expected if the sweeping haplotype harbored one or more disease-causing mutations in IRF1 or IL5. To further evaluate these disease-gene candidates, we obtained expression data from lower gastrointestinal biopsies of healthy individuals and Crohn's disease patients. We observed a 72% increase in gene expression of IRF1 among Crohn's disease patients (P=0.0006) and no significant difference in expression of OCTN1. Collectively, these data indicate that the 503F variant has increased in frequency due to recent positive selection and that disease-causing variants in linkage disequilibrium with 503F have hitchhiked to relatively high frequency, thus forming the IBD5 risk haplotype. Finally, our association results and expression data support IRF1 as a strong candidate for Crohn's disease causation.