Beneficial Effect of ACI-24 Vaccination on Aß Plaque Pathology and Microglial Phenotypes in an Amyloidosis Mouse Model.

Amyloid-ß (Aß) deposition is an initiating factor in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Microglia are the brain immune cells that surround and phagocytose Aß plaques, but their phagocytic capacity declines in AD. This is in agreement with studies that associate AD risk loci with genes regulating the phagocytic function of immune cells. Immunotherapies are currently pursued as strategies against AD and there are increased efforts to understand the role of the immune system in ameliorating AD pathology. Here, we evaluated the effect of the Aß targeting ACI-24 vaccine in reducing AD pathology in an amyloidosis mouse model. ACI-24 vaccination elicited a robust and sustained antibody response in APPPS1 mice with an accompanying reduction of Aß plaque load, Aß plaque-associated ApoE and dystrophic neurites as compared to non-vaccinated controls. Furthermore, an increased number of NLRP3-positive plaque-associated microglia was observed following ACI-24 vaccination. In contrast to this local microglial activation at Aß plaques, we observed a more ramified morphology of Aß plaque-distant microglia compared to non-vaccinated controls. Accordingly, bulk transcriptomic analysis revealed a trend towards the reduced expression of several disease-associated microglia (DAM) signatures that is in line with the reduced Aß plaque load triggered by ACI-24 vaccination. Our study demonstrates that administration of the Aß targeting vaccine ACI-24 reduces AD pathology, suggesting its use as a safe and cost-effective AD therapeutic intervention.

Proteolytic Processing of Neuregulin 1 Type III by Three Intramembrane-cleaving Proteases.

Numerous membrane-bound proteins undergo regulated intramembrane proteolysis. Regulated intramembrane proteolysis is initiated by shedding, and the remaining stubs are further processed by intramembrane-cleaving proteases (I-CLiPs). Neuregulin 1 type III (NRG1 type III) is a major physiological substrate of ß-secretase (ß-site amyloid precursor protein-cleaving enzyme 1 (BACE1)). BACE1-mediated cleavage is required to allow signaling of NRG1 type III. Because of the hairpin nature of NRG1 type III, two membrane-bound stubs with a type 1 and a type 2 orientation are generated by proteolytic processing. We demonstrate that these stubs are substrates for three I-CLiPs. The type 1-oriented stub is further cleaved by γ-secretase at an ϵ-like site five amino acids N-terminal to the C-terminal membrane anchor and at a γ-like site in the middle of the transmembrane domain. The ϵ-cleavage site is only one amino acid N-terminal to a Val/Leu substitution associated with schizophrenia. The mutation reduces generation of the NRG1 type III ß-peptide as well as reverses signaling. Moreover, it affects the cleavage precision of γ-secretase at the γ-site similar to certain Alzheimer disease-associated mutations within the amyloid precursor protein. The type 2-oriented membrane-retained stub of NRG1 type III is further processed by signal peptide peptidase-like proteases SPPL2a and SPPL2b. Expression of catalytically inactive aspartate mutations as well as treatment with 2,2'-(2-oxo-1,3-propanediyl)bis[(phenylmethoxy)carbonyl]-l-leucyl-l-leucinamide ketone inhibits formation of N-terminal intracellular domains and the corresponding secreted C-peptide. Thus, NRG1 type III is the first protein substrate that is not only cleaved by multiple sheddases but is also processed by three different I-CLiPs.

Laminin-121--recombinant expression and interactions with integrins.

Laminin-121, previously referred as to laminin-3, was expressed recombinantly in human embryonic kidney (HEK) 293 cells by triple transfection of full-length cDNAs encoding mouse laminin α1, ß2 and γ1 chains. The recombinant laminin-121 was purified using Heparin-Sepharose followed by molecular sieve chromatography and shown to be correctly folded by electron microscopy and circular dichroism (CD). The CD spectra of recombinant laminin-121 were very similar to those of laminin-111 isolated from Engelbreth-Holm-Swarm tumor (EHS-laminin) but its T(m) value was smaller than EHS-laminin and recombinant lamnin-111 suggesting that the replacement of the ß chain reduced the stability of the coiled-coil structure of laminin-121. Its binding to integrins was compared with EHS-laminin, laminin-3A32 purified from murine epidermal cell line and recombinantly expressed laminins-111, -211 and -221. Laminin-121 showed the highest affinity to α6ß1 and α7ß1 integrins and furthermore, laminin-121 most effectively supported neurite outgrowth. Together, this suggests that the ß2 laminins have higher affinity for integrins than the ß1 laminins.

Structural basis of sequence-specific collagen recognition by SPARC.

Protein interactions with the collagen triple helix play a critical role in collagen fibril formation, cell adhesion, and signaling. However, structural insight into sequence-specific collagen recognition is limited to an integrin-peptide complex. A GVMGFO motif in fibrillar collagens (O denotes 4-hydroxyproline) binds 3 unrelated proteins: von Willebrand factor (VWF), discoidin domain receptor 2 (DDR2), and the extracellular matrix protein SPARC/osteonectin/BM-40. We report the crystal structure at 3.2 A resolution of human SPARC bound to a triple-helical 33-residue peptide harboring the promiscuous GVMGFO motif. SPARC recognizes the GVMGFO motifs of the middle and trailing collagen chains, burying a total of 720 A(2) of solvent-accessible collagen surface. SPARC binding does not distort the canonical triple helix of the collagen peptide. In contrast, a critical loop in SPARC is substantially remodelled upon collagen binding, creating a deep pocket that accommodates the phenylalanine residue of the trailing collagen chain ("Phe pocket"). This highly restrictive specificity pocket is shared with the collagen-binding integrin I-domains but differs strikingly from the shallow collagen-binding grooves of the platelet receptor glycoprotein VI and microbial adhesins. We speculate that binding of the GVMGFO motif to VWF and DDR2 also results in structural changes and the formation of a Phe pocket.

Mapping of SPARC/BM-40/osteonectin-binding sites on fibrillar collagens.

The 33-kDa matrix protein SPARC (BM-40, osteonectin) binds several collagen types with moderate affinity. The collagen-binding site resides in helix alphaA of the extracellular calcium-binding domain of SPARC and is partially masked by helix alphaC. Previously, we found that the removal of helix alphaC caused a 10-fold increase in the affinity of SPARC for collagen, and we identified amino acids crucial for binding by site-directed mutagenesis. In this study, we used rotary shadowing, CNBr peptides, and synthetic peptides to map binding sites of SPARC onto collagens I, II, and III. Rotary shadowing and electron microscopy of SPARC-collagen complexes identified a major binding site approximately 180 nm from the C terminus of collagen. SPARC binding was also detected with lower frequency near the matrix metalloproteinase cleavage site. These data fit well with our analysis of SPARC binding to CNBr peptides, denaturation of which abolished binding, indicating triple-helical conformation of collagen to be essential. SPARC binding was substantially decreased in two of seven alpha2(I) mutant procollagen I samples and after N-acetylation of Lys/Hyl side chains in wild-type collagen. Synthetic peptides of collagen III were used to locate the binding sites, and we found SPARC binding activity in a synthetic triple-helical peptide containing the sequence GPOGPSGPRGQOGVMGFOGPKGNDGAO (where O indicates 4-hydroxyproline), with affinity for SPARC comparable with that of procollagen III. This sequence is conserved among alpha chains of collagens I, II, III, and V. In vitro collagen fibrillogenesis was delayed in the presence of SPARC, suggesting that SPARC might modulate collagen fibril assembly in vivo.

Platelet interaction with CNBr peptides from type II collagen via integrin alpha2beta1.

Adhesion of blood platelets to fibrillar collagens plays a crucial role in haemostasis. Collagen type II is a homotrimeric member of the fibrillar collagen family, whose ability to interact with platelets has been poorly investigated. In this work, we analysed platelet adhesion to the whole collagen type II molecule, as well as to its CNBr peptides. We found that collagen type II is as efficient as collagen type I in supporting platelet adhesion. Platelet binding sites on collagen type II were identified in two different CNBr-derived peptides, CB8 and CB11. The ability of these peptides to support platelet adhesion required the triple helical conformation. Interaction of platelets with CB8 and CB11 peptides was totally dependent on the presence of Mg(2+) ions, and was completely inhibited by the anti-integrin alpha(2)beta(1) antibody P1E6. Upon adhesion to CB8 and CB11, a significant increase in intracellular protein tyrosine phosphorylation was observed. The pattern of tyrosine phosphorylated proteins in CB8- and CB11-adherent platelets was very similar to that observed in platelets adherent to the whole collagen molecule. By immunoprecipitation experiments, we identified two substrates that were tyrosine phosphorylated in adherent platelets as the tyrosine kinase Syk and the PLCgamma2 isozyme. By contrast, platelet adhesion to CB8 and CB11 did not promote tyrosine phosphorylation of FcR gamma-chain. Finally, we found that collagen type II, but not the CNBr-derived peptides, was able to induce cell aggregation associated to protein tyrosine phosphorylation when added to a platelet suspension. These results identify the CNBr peptides from collagen type II CB8 and CB11 as ligands for platelet integrin alpha(2)beta(1), and recognise their ability to support platelet adhesion and activation.