Exposure determinants of cadmium in European mothers and their children.

The metal cadmium (Cd) is a widespread environmental pollutant with documented adverse effects on the kidneys and bones from long-term environmental exposure, but with insufficiently elucidated public health consequences such as risk of cardiovascular disease, hormone-related cancer in adults and developmental effects in children. This study is the first pan-European human biomonitoring project that succeeded in performing harmonized measurements of Cd in urine in a comparable way in mother-child couples from 16 European countries. The aim of the study was to evaluate the overall Cd exposure and significant determinants of Cd exposure. A study population of 1632 women (24-52 years of age), and 1689 children (5-12 years of age), from 32 rural and urban areas, was examined within a core period of 6 months in 2011-2012. Women were stratified as smokers and non-smokers. As expected, smoking mothers had higher geometric mean (gm) urinary cadmium (UCd; 0.24 µg/g crea; n=360) than non-smoking mothers (gm 0.18 µg/g crea; n=1272; p<0.0001), and children had lower UCd (gm 0.065 µg/g crea; n=1689) than their mothers at the country level. Non-smoking women exposed to environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) at home had 14% (95% CI 1-28%) higher UCd than those who were not exposed to ETS at home (p=0.04). No influence of ETS at home or other places on UCd levels was detected in children. Smoking women with primary education as the highest educational level of the household had 48% (95% CI 18-86%) higher UCd than those with tertiary education (p=0.0008). The same observation was seen in non-smoking women and in children; however they were not statistically significant. In children, living in a rural area was associated with 7% (95% CI 1-13%) higher UCd (p=0.03) compared to living in an urban area. Children, 9-12 years had 7% (95% CI 1-13%) higher UCd (p=0.04) than children 5-8 years. About 1% of the mothers, and 0.06% of the children, exceeded the tolerable weekly intake (TWI) appointed by EFSA, corresponding to 1.0 µg Cd/g crea in urine. Poland had the highest UCd in comparison between the 16 countries, while Denmark had the lowest. Whether the differences between countries are related to differences in the degree of environmental Cd contamination or to differences in lifestyle, socioeconomic status or dietary patterns is not clear.

Formal recycling of e-waste leads to increased exposure to toxic metals: an occupational exposure study from Sweden.

Electrical and electronic waste (e-waste) contains multiple toxic metals. However, there is currently a lack of exposure data for metals on workers in formal recycling plants. The objective of this study was to evaluate workers' exposure to metals, using biomarkers of exposure in combination with monitoring of personal air exposure. We assessed exposure to 20 potentially toxic metals among 55 recycling workers and 10 office workers at three formal e-waste recycling plants in Sweden. Workers at two of the plants were followed-up after 6 months. We collected the inhalable fraction and OFC (37-mm) fraction of particles, using personal samplers, as well as spot samples of blood and urine. We measured metal concentrations in whole blood, plasma, urine, and air filters using inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry following acid digestion. The air sampling indicated greater airborne exposure, 10 to 30 times higher, to most metals among the recycling workers handling e-waste than among the office workers. The exposure biomarkers showed significantly higher concentrations of chromium, cobalt, indium, lead, and mercury in blood, urine, and/or plasma of the recycling workers, compared with the office workers. Concentrations of antimony, indium, lead, mercury, and vanadium showed close to linear associations between the inhalable particle fraction and blood, plasma, or urine. In conclusion, our study of formal e-waste recycling shows that workers performing recycling tasks are exposed to multiple toxic metals.

Gender and age differences in mixed metal exposure and urinary excretion.

BACKGROUND: Little is known about the variation in exposure to toxic metals by age and gender and other potential modifying factors. We evaluated age and gender differences by measurements of metal/element concentrations in urine in a rural population in Matlab, Bangladesh, in three age groups: 8-12 (N=238), 14-15 (N=107) and 30-88 (N=710) years of age, living in an area with no point sources of metal exposure but where elevated water arsenic concentrations are prevalent. RESULTS: We found marked differences in urine concentrations of metals and trace elements by gender, age, tobacco use, socioeconomic and nutritional status. Besides a clearly elevated urinary arsenic concentration in all age groups (medians 63-85 µg As/L), and despite the low degree of contamination from industries and traffic, the urine concentrations of toxic metals such as cadmium and lead were clearly elevated, especially in children (median 0.31 µg Cd/L and 2.9 µg Pb/L, respectively). In general, women had higher urinary concentrations of toxic metals, especially Cd (median 0.81 µg/L) compared to men (0.66 µg/L) and U (median 10 ng/L in women, compared to 6.4 ng/L in men), while men had higher urinary concentrations of the basic and essential elements Ca (69 mg/L in men, 30-50 years, compared to 52 mg/L in women), Mg (58 mg/L in men compared to 50 mg/L in women), Zn (182 µg/L in men compared to 117 µg/L in women) and Se (9.9 µg/L in men compared to 8.7 µg/L in women). Manganese was consistently higher in females than in males in all age groups, suggesting a biological difference between females and males in Mn metabolism. Increasing socioeconomic status decreased the toxic metal exposure significantly in children and especially in men. Poor iron status was detected in 17% of children, adolescents and women, but only in 6% of men. Also zinc deficiency was more prevalent in females than in males. CONCLUSIONS: Women and children seemed to be more at risk for toxic metal exposure than men and at the same time more vulnerable to micronutrient deficiency. Higher concentrations of the toxic metals in urine in women are likely to reflect an increased gastrointestinal absorption of these metals at micronutrient deficiency, such as low body iron stores and Zn deficiency. Higher urinary concentrations of the essential elements in men likely reflect a better nutritional status. There is a need for information on exposure, lifestyle and socioeconomic factors, stratified by gender and age, for the purpose of conducting balanced risk assessment and management that considers such differences.

The association between active/passive smoking and toxic metals among pregnant women in Greece.

Exposure to toxic metals during pregnancy may have detrimental effects on foetal development. We assessed the role of sociodemographic characteristics and active and passive smoking on blood concentrations of metals (As, Cd, Pb, Hg, Sb, U, Mn and Mo). Venous blood drawn from 50 pregnant women, randomly selected from the mother-child birth cohort 'Rhea'. Extensive questionnaire data on active and passive smoking were collected. Urinary cotinine was measured to validate self-reported exposure and non-smoking status. Smokers had higher concentrations of Cd (1.0 µg/L) as compared with non-smokers (0.29 µg/L, P < 0.001) and a tendency for higher As and Hg. Among non-smokers, blood As and Hg concentrations were also associated with exposure to passive smoking in public venues and the family home and to overall greater secondhand smoke (SHS) exposure (As: 0.97µg/L among heavy-exposed compared with 0.20 µg/L among the low-exposed, P < 0.05; Hg: 2.1 µg/L vs. 0.9 µg/L respectively, P < 0.05). Controlling for fish and seafood intake altered the statistical significance but not the direction of the above associations. Smoking was associated with higher Cd concentrations in pregnant women, although the association between passive smoking and elevated As and Hg concentrations was indicative, however inconclusive.

Skin deposition of nickel, cobalt, and chromium in production of gas turbines and space propulsion components.

Skin exposure to nickel, cobalt, and chromium may cause sensitization and allergic contact dermatitis and it is known that many alloys and platings may release significant amounts of the metals upon contact with skin. Occupational exposure to these sensitizing metals has been studied in different settings with regards to airborne dust and different biological end points, but little is known about deposition on skin from airborne dust and direct contact with materials containing the metals. In this study, skin deposition was studied in 24 workers in an industry for development and manufacturing of gas turbines and space propulsion components. The workers were employed in three departments, representing different exposure scenarios: tools sharpening of hard metal items, production of space propulsion structures, and thermal application of different metal-containing powders. A novel acid wipe sampling technique was used to sample metals from specific skin surfaces on the hands and the forehead of the workers. Total amounts of nickel, cobalt, and chromium were measured by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. The result showed that nickel, cobalt, and chromium could be detected on all skin surfaces sampled. The highest level of nickel was 15 microg cm(-2) h(-1), the highest for cobalt was 4.5 microg cm(-2) h(-1), and for chromium 0.6 microg cm(-2) h(-1). The three departments had different exposures regarding the metals. The highest levels of nickel on the skin of the workers were found in the thermal applications department, cobalt in the tools sharpening department, and chromium in the space propulsion components department. In conclusion, the workers' exposure to the metals was more likely to come from direct skin contact with items, rather than from airborne dust, based on the fact that the levels of metals were much higher on the fingers than on the back side of the hands and the forehead. The skin exposure levels of nickel and cobalt detected are judged capable to induce sensitization and elicit allergic contact dermatitis.