Longitudinal changes in the mental health of UK young male and female adults during the COVID-19 pandemic.

An increasing body of research indicates that, whilst young adults are at the lowest risk of becoming severely physically ill as a result of COVID-19, they are at the greatest risk of adverse mental health outcomes. Using data from the Understanding Society COVID-19 survey, the current study examined the mental health of 18-25-year-olds during the pandemic. Current mental health was measured at six time points using the 12-item General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-12), a validated measure for mental distress. The analytic sample included 880 young adults (292 = males; 588 = females). The trajectory of mental health was modeled from April to November 2020, using demographic information and health behaviors (physical activity, alcohol consumption, and smoking cigarettes) as covariates. Growth curve modeling indicated that alcohol consumption, smoking, being female, having a lower income, and having a pre-existing mental health condition were risk factors for worse mental health during the pandemic. For females, their mental health was lowest in April but gradually improved until September, when it began to decline again. Males, in contrast, had a relatively stable trajectory of mental health across the pandemic. These findings can help inform targeted interventions for at risk groups to minimize the adverse impact of the pandemic on young adults' mental health.

Gendered Pathways of Internalizing Problems from Early Childhood to Adolescence and Associated Adolescent Outcomes.

Despite trends indicating worsening internalizing problems, characterized by anxiety and depression, there is dearth of research examining gender differences in developmental trajectories of internalizing problems from early childhood to adolescence. Drawing on the UK Millennium Cohort Study (n = 17,206, 49% female), this study examines trajectories of parent-reported, clinically-meaningful (reflecting the top 10%) internalizing problems from ages 3 to 14 years and their early predictors and adolescent outcomes. Group-based modelling revealed three trajectories when examining boys and girls together, but there were significant gender differences. When examining boys and girls separately, four trajectories were identified including two relatively stable trajectories showing either high or low probabilities of internalizing problems. An increasing trajectory was also found for both boys and girls, showing an increasing probability of internalizing problems which continued to rise for girls, but levelled off for boys from age 11. A decreasing trajectory was revealed for boys, while a moderate but stable trajectory was identified for girls. Boys and girls in the increasing and high probability groups were more likely to report a number of problematic outcomes including high BMI, self-harm, low mental wellbeing, depressive symptoms, and low educational motivation than the low group. Girls on the increasing trajectory also reported more cigarette and cannabis use and early sexual activity at age 14 compared to girls on the low trajectory. Findings suggest that intervention strategies take a systemic view, targeting not only internal feelings, but also behaviours potentially associated with later negative outcomes.

Developmental Trajectories of Conduct Problems and Cumulative Risk from Early Childhood to Adolescence.

Pathways into and out of conduct problems differ by circumstances experienced since infancy. There is a research gap in understanding how these developmental patterns vary according to the timing and persistence of risk and whether there are differences across ecological domains. This study examines variations in trajectories of conduct problems between ages 3 to 14 years and associated child, family and socio-economic risk factors from ages 9 months to 14 years, drawing on the UK Millennium Cohort Study (n = 17,206, 49% female), a nationally representative longitudinal study of children born between 2000/02. Group-based modeling was used to identify four distinct trajectories of conduct problems: low (56%), persistent high (8%), childhood-limited (23%) and adolescent-onset (13%). All three problem pathways were associated with high levels of exposure to risk, particularly early socio-economic and persisting child and family risks. However, while for the persistent and adolescent-onset pathways, exposure to higher levels of family and child risks continued through adolescence, it receded for the childhood-limited trajectory. The effects of early socio-economic disadvantage persisted for those on the adolescent-onset trajectory, highlighting the importance of early markers for this later onset group. Maternal smoking in pregnancy continued to be a significant predictor for all three conduct problem groups, even up to age 14 years. The findings indicate that different influences and processes may explain diverse pathways of conduct problems. This offers insights into who and what might be targeted and when might be the most effective developmental window for intervention.

The influence of family relations on trajectories of cigarette and alcohol use from early to late adolescence.

The present study examines growth curve trajectories of cigarette and alcohol use from 13 to 19 years, and investigates how family relations (i.e., decision-making opportunities, negative family interactions, and positive identification with parents) relate to contemporaneous and predictive alcohol and cigarette use during adolescence. Data came from a longitudinal study of European American and African American families from a range of socioeconomic backgrounds (n = 1160 for alcohol use; n = 1102 for cigarette use). European Americans had higher levels and faster rates of alcohol and cigarette use than African Americans. European Americans females had the greatest likelihood of increased cigarette use. Negative family interactions and positive identification had contemporaneous and predictive associations with alcohol and/or cigarette use. Negative family interactions were related to increased smoking and drinking, whereas positive identification was associated with decreased use. Family relations differentially affected cigarette use according to ethnicity and gender, but had similar effects on alcohol use.