Reaction Mechanism of Human PAICS Elucidated by Quantum Chemical Calculations.

Human PAICS is a bifunctional enzyme that is involved in the de novo purine biosynthesis, catalyzing the conversion of aminoimidazole ribonucleotide (AIR) into N-succinylcarboxamide-5-aminoimidazole ribonucleotide (SAICAR). It comprises two distinct active sites, AIR carboxylase (AIRc) where the AIR is initially converted to carboxyaminoimidazole ribonucleotide (CAIR) by reaction with CO2 and SAICAR synthetase (SAICARs) in which CAIR then reacts with an aspartate to form SAICAR, in an ATP-dependent reaction. Human PAICS is a promising target for the treatment of various types of cancer, and it is therefore of high interest to develop a detailed understanding of its reaction mechanism. In the present work, density functional theory calculations are employed to investigate the PAICS reaction mechanism. Starting from the available crystal structures, two large models of the AIRc and SAICARs active sites are built and different mechanistic proposals for the carboxylation and phosphorylation-condensation mechanisms are examined. For the carboxylation reaction, it is demonstrated that it takes place in a two-step mechanism, involving a C-C bond formation followed by a deprotonation of the formed tetrahedral intermediate (known as isoCAIR) assisted by an active site histidine residue. For the phosphorylation-condensation reaction, it is shown that the phosphorylation of CAIR takes place before the condensation reaction with the aspartate. It is further demonstrated that the three active site magnesium ions are involved in binding the substrates and stabilizing the transition states and intermediates of the reaction. The calculated barriers are in good agreement with available experimental data.

Ribonucleotide reductase inhibition by metal complexes of Triapine (3-aminopyridine-2-carboxaldehyde thiosemicarbazone): a combined experimental and theoretical study.

Triapine (3-aminopyridine-2-carboxaldehyde thiosemicarbazone, 3-AP) is currently the most promising chemotherapeutic compound among the class of α-N-heterocyclic thiosemicarbazones. Here we report further insights into the mechanism(s) of anticancer drug activity and inhibition of mouse ribonucleotide reductase (RNR) by Triapine. In addition to the metal-free ligand, its iron(III), gallium(III), zinc(II) and copper(II) complexes were studied, aiming to correlate their cytotoxic activities with their effects on the diferric/tyrosyl radical center of the RNR enzyme in vitro. In this study we propose for the first time a potential specific binding pocket for Triapine on the surface of the mouse R2 RNR protein. In our mechanistic model, interaction with Triapine results in the labilization of the diferric center in the R2 protein. Subsequently the Triapine molecules act as iron chelators. In the absence of external reductants, and in presence of the mouse R2 RNR protein, catalytic amounts of the iron(III)-Triapine are reduced to the iron(II)-Triapine complex. In the presence of an external reductant (dithiothreitol), stoichiometric amounts of the potently reactive iron(II)-Triapine complex are formed. Formation of the iron(II)-Triapine complex, as the essential part of the reaction outcome, promotes further reactions with molecular oxygen, which give rise to reactive oxygen species (ROS) and thereby damage the RNR enzyme. Triapine affects the diferric center of the mouse R2 protein and, unlike hydroxyurea, is not a potent reductant, not likely to act directly on the tyrosyl radical.

Tungsten-dependent formaldehyde ferredoxin oxidoreductase: reaction mechanism from quantum chemical calculations.

Formaldehyde ferredoxin oxidoreductase from Pyrococcus furiosus is a tungsten-dependent enzyme that catalyzes the oxidation of formaldehyde to formic acid. In the present study, quantum chemical calculations are used to elucidate the reaction mechanism of this enzyme. Several possible mechanistic scenarios are investigated with a large model of the active site designed on the basis of the X-ray crystal structure of the native enzyme. Based on the calculations, we propose a new mechanism in which the formaldehyde substrate binds directly to the tungsten ion. W(VI)=O then performs a nucleophilic attack on the formaldehyde carbon to form a tetrahedral intermediate. In the second step, which is calculated to be rate limiting, a proton is transferred to the second-shell Glu308 residue, coupled with a two-electron reduction of the tungsten ion. The calculated barriers for the mechanism are energetically very feasible and in relatively good agreement with experimental rate constants. Three other second-shell mechanisms, including one previously proposed based on experimental findings, are considered but ruled out because of their high barriers.

The reaction mechanism of phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase: a density functional theory study.

Hybrid density functional theory methods were used to investigate the reaction mechanism of human phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase (hPNMT). This enzyme catalyzes the S-adenosyl-L-methionine-dependent conversion of norepinephrine to epinephrine, which constitutes the terminal step in the catecholamine biosynthesis. Several models of the active site were constructed based on the X-ray structure. Geometries of the stationary points along the reaction path were optimized and the reaction barrier and energy were calculated and compared to the experimental values. The calculations demonstrate that the reaction takes place via an SN2 mechanism with methyl transfer being rate-limiting, a suggestion supported by mutagenesis studies. Optimal agreement with experimental data is reached using a model in which both active site glutamates are protonated. Overall, the mechanism of hPNMT is more similar to those of catechol O-methyltransferase and glycine N-methyltransferase than to that of guanidinoacetate N-methyltransferase in which methyl transfer is coupled to proton transfer.

Peptide hydrolysis by the binuclear zinc enzyme aminopeptidase from Aeromonas proteolytica: a density functional theory study.

Aminopeptidase from Aeromonas proteolytica (AAP) is a binuclear zinc enzyme that catalyzes the cleavage of the N-terminal amino acid residue of peptides and proteins. In this study, we used density functional methods to investigate the reaction mechanism of this enzyme. A model of the active site was constructed on the basis of the X-ray crystal structure of the native enzyme, and a model dipeptide was used as a substrate. It was concluded that the hydroxide is capable of performing a nucleophilic attack at the peptide carbonyl from its bridging position without the need to first become terminal. The two zinc ions are shown to have quite different roles. Zn2 binds the amino group of the substrate, thereby orienting it toward the nucleophile, while Zn1 stabilizes the alkoxide ion of the tetrahedral intermediate, thereby lowering the barrier for the nucleophilic attack. The rate-limiting step is suggested to be the protonation of the nitrogen of the former peptide bond, which eventually leads to the cleavage of the C-N bond.

Theoretical investigation of the first-shell mechanism of nitrile hydratase.

The first-shell mechanism of nitrile hydratase (NHase) is investigated theoretically using density functional theory. NHases catalyze the conversion of nitriles to amides and are classified into two groups, the non-heme Fe(III) NHases and the non-corrinoid Co(III) NHases. The active site of the non-heme iron NHase comprises a low-spin iron (S=1/2) with a remarkable set of ligands, including two deprotonated backbone nitrogens and both cysteine-sulfenic and cysteine-sulfinic acids. A widely proposed reaction mechanism of NHase is the first-shell mechanism in which the nitrile substrate binds directly to the low-spin iron in the sixth coordination site. We have used quantum chemical models of the NHase active site to investigate this mechanism. We present potential energy profiles for the reaction and provide characterization of the intermediates and transition-state structures for the NHase-mediated conversion of acetonitrile. The results indicate that the first-shell ligand Cys114-SO- could be a possible base in the nitrile hydration mechanism, abstracting a proton from the nucleophilic water molecule. The generally suggested role of the Fe(III) center as a Lewis acid, activating the substrate toward nucleophilic attack, is shown to be unlikely. Instead, the metal is suggested to provide electrostatic stabilization to the anionic imidate intermediate, thereby lowering the reaction barrier.

Theoretical study of the methyl transfer in guanidinoacetate methyltransferase.

The reaction mechanism of the guanidinoacetate methyltransferase (GAMT) enzyme has been investigated by means of density functional theory using the B3LYP hybrid functional. GAMT catalyzes the S-adenosyl-L-methionine (SAM)-dependent methylation of guanidinoacetate (GAA) to form creatine. A quantum chemical model was built on the basis of the recent crystal structure of GAMT complexed with S-adenosylhomocysteine (SAH) and GAA. The methyl group transfer from SAM to N(E) of GAA is shown to occur concertedly with a proton transfer from NE to the neighboring OD1 of Asp134. Good agreement is found between the calculated barrier and the experimental rate.

Methyl transfer in glycine N-methyltransferase. A theoretical study.

Density functional theory calculations using the hybrid functional B3LYP have been performed to study the methyl transfer step in glycine N-methyltransferase (GNMT). This enzyme catalyzes the S-adenosyl-L-methionine (SAM)-dependent methylation of glycine to form sarcosine. The starting point for the calculations is the recent X-ray crystal structure of GNMT complexed with SAM and acetate. Several quantum chemical models with different sizes, employing up to 98 atoms, were used. The calculations demonstrate that the suggested mechanism, where the methyl group is transferred in a single S(N)2 step, is thermodynamically plausible. By adding or eliminating various groups at the active site, it was furthermore demonstrated that hydrogen bonds to the amino group of the glycine substrate lower the reaction barrier, while hydrogen bonds to the carboxylate group raise the barrier.

Insights into properties and energetics of iron-sulfur proteins from simple clusters to nitrogenase.

Some of the principal physical features of iron-sulfur clusters in proteins are analyzed, including metal-ligand covalency, spin polarization, spin coupling, valence delocalization, valence interchange and small reorganization energies, with emphasis on recent spectroscopic and theoretical work. The current state of structural, spectroscopic, and computational knowledge for the iron-sulfur clusters in the nitrogenase iron and iron-molybdenum proteins is examined by comparison and contrast to 'simpler' ironclusters. The differing interactions of the nitrogenase iron and iron-molybdenum clusters compared with those of other iron-sulfur clusters with the protein and solvent environment are also explored.