Procedural sedation and analgesia versus general anesthesia for hysteroscopic myomectomy (PROSECCO trial): A multicenter randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Hysteroscopic resection is the first-choice treatment for symptomatic type 0 and 1 fibroids. Traditionally, this was performed under general anesthesia. Over the last decade, surgical procedures are increasingly being performed in an outpatient setting under procedural sedation and analgesia. However, studies evaluating safety and effectiveness of hysteroscopic myomectomy under procedural sedation are lacking. This study aims to investigate whether hysteroscopic myomectomy under procedural sedation and analgesia with propofol is noninferior to hysteroscopic myomectomy under general anesthesia. METHODS AND FINDINGS: This was a multicenter, randomized controlled noninferiority trial conducted in 14 university and teaching hospitals in the Netherlands between 2016 and 2021. Inclusion criteria were age ≥18 years, maximum number of 3 type 0 or 1 fibroids, maximum fibroid diameter 3.5 cm, American Society of Anesthesiologists class 1 or 2, and having sufficient knowledge of the Dutch or English language. Women with clotting disorders or with severe anemia (Hb < 5.0 mmol/L) were excluded. Women were randomized using block randomization with variable block sizes of 2, 4, and 6, between hysteroscopic myomectomy under procedural sedation and analgesia (PSA) with propofol or under general anesthesia (GA). Primary outcome was the percentage of complete resections, assessed on transvaginal ultrasonography 6 weeks postoperatively by a sonographer blinded for the treatment arm and surgical outcome. Secondary outcomes were the surgeon's judgment of completeness of procedure, menstrual blood loss, uterine fibroid related and general quality of life, pain, recovery, hospitalization, complications, and surgical reinterventions. Follow-up period was 1 year. The risk difference between both treatment arms was estimated, and a Farrington-Manning test was used to determine the p-value for noninferiority (noninferiority margin 7.5% of incomplete resections). Data were analyzed according to the intention-to-treat principle, including a per-protocol analysis for the primary outcome. A total of 209 women participated in the study and underwent hysteroscopic myomectomy with PSA (n = 106) or GA (n = 103). Mean age was 45.1 [SD 6.4] years in the PSA group versus 45.0 [7.7] years in the GA group. For 98/106 women in the PSA group and 89/103 women in the GA group, data were available for analysis of the primary outcome. Hysteroscopic resection was complete in 86/98 women (87.8%) in the PSA group and 79/89 women (88.8%) in the GA group (risk difference -1.01%; 95% confidence interval (CI) -10.36 to 8.34; noninferiority, P = 0.09). No serious anesthesiologic complications occurred, and conversion from PSA to GA was not required. During the follow-up period, 15 serious adverse events occurred (overnight admissions). All were unrelated to the intervention studied. Main limitations were the choice of primary outcome and the fact that our study proved to be underpowered. CONCLUSIONS: Noninferiority of PSA for completeness of resection was not shown, though there were no significant differences in clinical outcomes and quality of life. In this study, hysteroscopic myomectomy for type 0 and 1 fibroids with PSA compared to GA was safe and led to shorter hospitalization. These results can be used for counseling patients by gynecologists and anesthesiologists. Based on these findings, we suggest that hysteroscopic myomectomies can be performed under PSA in an outpatient setting. TRIAL REGISTRATION: The study was registered prospectively in the Dutch Trial Register (NTR 5357; registration date: 11 August 2015; Date of initial participant enrollment: 18 February 2016).

The (cost) effectiveness of procedural sedation and analgesia versus general anaesthesia for hysteroscopic myomectomy, a multicentre randomised controlled trial: PROSECCO trial, a study protocol.

BACKGROUND: In women with abnormal uterine bleeding, fibroids are a frequent finding. In case of heavy menstrual bleeding and presence of submucosal type 0-1 fibroids, hysteroscopic resection is the treatment of first choice, as removal of these fibroids is highly effective. Hysteroscopic myomectomy is currently usually performed in the operating theatre. A considerable reduction in costs and a higher patient satisfaction are expected when procedural sedation and analgesia with propofol (PSA) in an outpatient setting is applied. However, both safety and effectiveness - including the necessity for re-intervention due to incomplete resection - have not yet been evaluated. METHODS: This study is a multicentre randomised controlled trial with a non-inferiority design and will be performed in the Netherlands. Women > 18 years with a maximum of 3 symptomatic type 0 or 1 submucosal fibroids with a maximum diameter of 3.5 cm are eligible to participate in the trial. After informed consent, 205 women will be randomised to either hysteroscopic myomectomy using procedural sedation and analgesia with propofol in an outpatient setting or hysteroscopic myomectomy using general anaesthesia in a clinical setting in the operating theatre. Primary outcome will be the percentage of complete resections, based on transvaginal ultrasonography 6 weeks postoperatively. Secondary outcomes are cost effectiveness, menstrual blood loss (Pictorial blood assessment chart), quality of life, pain, return to daily activities/work, hospitalization, (post) operative complications and re-interventions. Women will be followed up to one year after hysteroscopic myomectomy. DISCUSSION: This study may demonstrate comparable effectiveness of hysteroscopic myomectomy under procedural sedation and analgesia versus general anaesthesia in a safe and patient friendly environment, whilst achieving a significant cost reduction. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Dutch trial register, number NTR5357 . Registered 11th of August 2015.

The role of hypoxia inducible factor-1alpha in gynecological cancer.

Understanding the mechanisms of carcinogenesis and progression of gynecological tumors is important as these insights might lead to improved diagnostic tools for the pathologist, improved prediction of prognosis, response to therapy, and eventually better biology-based disease management, thereby improving prognosis and quality of life for the individual patient. Hypoxia is an important event in carcinogenesis because it renders a more aggressive phenotype with increased invasiveness and proliferation, formation of metastases and poorer survival. Although selecting patients with hypoxic tumors may therefore be clinically important, there is no consensus as to the method best suited for routine assessment of hypoxia. One of the potential tumor hypoxia markers is hypoxia inducible factor 1 (HIF-1). HIF-1 is the key cellular survival protein under hypoxia, and is associated with tumor progression and metastasis in various solid tumors. In this review, we show that in gynecological cancers, HIF-1A is emerging as an important factor in carcinogenesis, and that overexpression of HIF-1A and its target genes CA9 and SLC2A1 seems associated with shorter progression free- and overall survival. Since hypoxia and HIF-1A expression are associated with treatment failure, targeting HIF-1A could be an attractive therapeutic strategy with the potential for disrupting multiple pathways crucial for tumor growth. Currently, HIF-1A inhibitors are being studied in clinical trials in recurrent ovarian- and cervical cancer, and trials in other gynecological cancers are expected.

Necrosis related HIF-1alpha expression predicts prognosis in patients with endometrioid endometrial carcinoma.

BACKGROUND: Hypoxia inducible factor 1alpha (HIF-1alpha) plays an essential role in the adaptive response of cells to hypoxia and is associated with aggressive tumour behaviour. We have shown p27kip1, which is generally reduced in endometrial cancer, to be re-expressed in hypoxic regions. This possibly contributes to survival of cancer cells. The aim of this study was to evaluate the prognostic value of HIF-1alpha and p27kip expression in patients with endometrioid endometrial cancer. METHODS: Expression levels of HIF-1alpha, CAIX, Glut-1, and p27kip1 were analyzed by immunohistochemistry. Percentage of positive cells, staining pattern (perinecrotic, diffuse, or mixed) and presence of necrosis were noted. RESULTS: Necrosis was correlated with shortened disease free survival (DFS) (p = 0.008) and overall survival (OS) (p = 0.045). For DFS, perinecrotic HIF-1alpha expression was also prognostic (p = 0.044). Moreover, high p27kip1 expression was an additional prognostic factor for these patients with perinecrotic HIF-1alpha expression. In multivariate Cox regression, perinecrotic HIF-expression emerged as an independent prognostic factor. Perinecrotic HIF-1alpha expression was significantly associated with CAIX and Glut-1 expression, pointing towards functional HIF-1. CONCLUSIONS: In patients with endometrioid endometrial cancer, necrosis and necrosis-related expression of HIF-1alpha are important prognostic factors. More aggressive adjuvant treatment might be necessary to improve the outcome of patients with these characteristics.

The invasive front in endometrial carcinoma: higher proliferation and associated derailment of cell cycle regulators.

The aim of the study was to explore whether expression of proliferation and hypoxia-related proteins differs in the central parts and the invasive front in endometrial carcinomas. Proliferation-associated proteins Ki67 and cyclin A; cell cycle regulators p16, p21, p53, cyclin D1, cyclin E, and cdk2; and hypoxia-inducible factor 1alpha and its downstream factors glucose transporter 1, carbonic anhydrase IX, and vascular endothelial growth factor were immunohistochemically stained in paraffin-embedded specimens from endometrioid (n = 33), mucinous (n = 1), and serous (n = 5) endometrial carcinomas. The percentages of positive cells at the invasive front and central tumor parts were scored and compared. Ki67 (P < .001), cyclin E (P = .018), p16 (P = .003), and cdk2 (.001) were expressed higher at the invasive front than centrally (Wilcoxon signed ranks test). Higher expression of these antigens at the invasive front was seen in 31 of 38 cases for Ki67, in 16 of 39 cases for cyclin E, in 15 of 39 cases for cdk2, and in 11 of 39 cases for p16. The other cell cycle proteins and the hypoxia-related factors did not show significant differences in expression between the central parts and the invasive front. Endometrial carcinomas clearly show an invasive front that is characterized by higher proliferation and progressive derailment of the cell cycle regulators cyclin E, p16, and cdk2, but not by an increased hypoxic response.

Hypoxia and angiogenesis in endometrioid endometrial carcinogenesis.

BACKGROUND: Hypoxia-inducible factor 1alpha (HIF-1alpha) plays an essential role in the adaptive response of cells to hypoxia, triggering biologic events associated with aggressive tumor behavior. METHODS: Expression of HIF-1alpha and proteins in the HIF-1alpha pathway (Glut-1, CAIX, VEGF) in paraffin-embedded specimens of normal (n=17), premalignant (n=17) and endometrioid endometrial carcinoma (n=39) was explored by immunohistochemistry, in relation to microvessel density (MVD). RESULTS: HIF-1alpha overexpression was absent in inactive endometrium but present in hyperplasia (61%) and carcinoma (87%), with increasing expression in a perinecrotic fashion pointing to underlying hypoxia. No membranous expression of Glut-1 and CAIX was noticed in inactive endometrium, in contrast with expression in hyperplasia (Glut-1 0%, CAIX 61%, only focal and diffuse) and carcinoma (Glut-1 94.6%, CAIX 92%, both mostly perinecrotically). Diffuse HIF-1alpha was accompanied by activation of downstream targets. VEGF was significantly higher expressed in hyperplasias and carcinomas compared to inactive endometrium. MVD was higher in hyperplasias and carcinomas than in normal endometrium (p<0.001). CONCLUSION: HIF-1alpha and its downstream genes are increasingly expressed from normal through premalignant to endometrioid adenocarcinoma of the endometrium, paralleled by activation of its downstream genes and increased angiogenesis. This underlines the potential importance of hypoxia and its key regulator HIF-1alpha in endometrial carcinogenesis.