Evolution of orthopaedic diseases through four thousand three hundred years: from ancient Egypt with virtual examinations of mummies to the twenty-first century.

PURPOSE: This study conducts a comprehensive comparative analysis of bone pathologies between ancient Egypt and today. We aim to elucidate the prevalence, types, and potential aetiological factors influencing skeletal disorders in these two distinct temporal and cultural contexts. METHODS: The research employs a multidisciplinary approach, integrating osteological, paleopathological, and historical data to understand bone pathologies in mummies and the actual world. Applying radiographs and CT scans as noninvasive techniques has shed new light on past diseases such as fractures, dysplasia, osteoarthritis, surgery, and tuberculosis. Virtual inspection has almost replaced classical autopsy and is essential, especially when dealing with museum specimens. RESULTS: Findings indicate no significant disparities in the prevalence and types of bone pathologies through 4300 years of evolution. Moreover, this study sheds light on the impact of sociocultural factors on bone health. Examination of ancient Egypt's burial practices and associated cultural beliefs provides insights into potential behavioral and ritualistic influences on bone pathologies and the prevalence of specific pathologies in the past and present. CONCLUSION: This comparative analysis illuminates the dynamic of bone pathologies, highlighting the interplay of biological, cultural, and environmental factors. By synthesizing archeological and clinical data, this research contributes to a more nuanced understanding of skeletal health's complexities in ancient and modern societies, offering valuable insights for anthropological and clinical disciplines.

High tibial osteotomy for acute correction and subsequent gradual tensioning of the posterolateral knee ligament complex in treating genu varum combined with a lateral thrust using the Ilizarov technique in adults: surgical technique and early results.

OBJECTIVE: To report the early results of using the Ilizarov technique in performing medial wedge opening high tibial osteotomy (MWOHTO) combined with gradual tensioning of the posterolateral corner in adult patients presenting with genu varum (GV) and lateral thrust. METHODS: A prospective case series study included 12 adult patients with a mean age of 25.2 ± 8.1 years who presented with GV deformity associated with lateral thrust. They were evaluated clinically using the "hospital for special surgery" (HSS) knee scoring system. Radiological evaluation was performed using long film from hip to knee to ankle (HKA) radiographs; the overall mechanical alignment was measured as the HKA angle, the upper tibial deformity was measured as the medial proximal tibial angle (MPTA), and the joint line convergence angle (JLCA) was measured. Surgical technique included using Ilizarov for MWOHTO below the level of the tibial tubercle, acute correction of the GV deformity, fibular osteotomy, and gradual distalization of the proximal fibula. RESULTS: After a mean follow-up of 26.3 ± 6.4 months, all osteotomies were united. All patients achieved fibular osteotomy site bony union except two with a fibrous union. The HSS score showed improvement from a mean preoperative score of 88.7 ± 7.6 to a postoperative 97.3 ± 3.9 (P < 0.05). The overall mechanical lower limb alignment improved significantly from a mean preoperative HKA of 164.5 ± 3.2 to a postoperative 178.9 ± 1.6 (P < 0.05). The MPTA improved significantly from 74.6 ± 4.1 to 88.9 ± 2.3, as well as the JLCA from 12.17 ± 1.9 to 2.3 ± 1.7 (P < 0.05). Grade 1 pin tract infection was developed in four patients and was treated conservatively. In two patients, mild pain over the fibular osteotomy site was relieved over time. The lateral thrust reoccurred at the last follow-up evaluation in the two poliomyelitis patients. CONCLUSION: MWOHTO, concomitant with tensioning the knee lateral soft tissue structure at the same setting through applying an Ilizarov apparatus, showed promising functional and radiological outcomes.

Neglected infected floating knee injury: evaluation of closed reduction techniques.

PURPOSE: Floating knee injury is uncommon yet challenging problem. The situation is more complicated by presence of infection, open comminuted fractures, and late presentation. The aim of this study was to evaluate the closed reduction techniques by circular external fixation in a single stage to treat patients having infected neglected floating knee injuries. METHODS: This retrospective study included 19 patients with a mean age of 34.4 years. The average duration from trauma to surgery was 51.1 days. All patients had at least one infected open fracture. According to Fraser's classification, ten injuries were type I, one case was type IIa, four were type IIb, and four were type IIc. Patients were treated by closed reduction techniques using the Ilizarov principles. Orthoplastic procedures were done in four cases in the same surgical setting. RESULTS: Closed reduction and union were achieved in all cases with control of infection in 17 cases. The follow-up period averaged 41 months. The mean knee flexion was 97.4°. The complications included 5° extension lag (two cases), malunion (three cases), refracture (two cases), and DVT (four cases). The bone results were excellent (12 cases), good (5 cases), and poor (2 cases). The functional results were excellent (two cases), good (seven cases), acceptable (seven cases), and poor (three cases). CONCLUSIONS: Closed reduction techniques using a circular frame provided a valid treatment option for infected neglected floating knee injuries in one stage without bone grafting. However, the high rate of complications and the diminished knee range of motion should be considered.

Limb reconstruction in a resource-limited environment.

INTRODUCTION: Limb salvage and reconstruction are often challenging and even more so in the limited resource setting. The purpose of this narrative review is to explore the strategies for addressing the unique obstacles and opportunities of limb reconstructive surgery in resource-limited environments globally. METHODS: We review (1) the global burden and dimension of the problem, (2) the relevance of orthopedic forums and communication, (3) free and open-access software for deformity analysis and correction, (4) bidirectional learning opportunities, and the value of fellowships and mentoring between resource-rich and resource-limited countries, and (5) how societies like SICOT can help to tackle the problem. Finally, case examples are presented to demonstrate the choice of surgical implants, their availability in regions with limited resources, and how the universal principles of limb reconstruction can be applied, irrespective of resource availability. RESULTS: Limb reconstruction can often be life-changing surgery with the goals of limb salvage, improved function, and ambulation. The contradiction of relatively few severe limb deformities in high-income countries (HICs) with abundant resources and the considerable burden of limb deformities in resource-limited countries is striking. Free, open access to education and software planning tools are of paramount importance to achieve this goal of limb reconstruction. Bidirectional learning, i.e., knowledge exchange between individual surgeons and societies with limited and abundant resources, can be reached via fellowships and mentoring. The presented cases highlight (1) fixator-assisted wound closure obliviating the need for plastic surgery, (2) open bone transport, and (3) hinged Ilizarov frames for correction of severe deformities. These cases underline that optimal clinical outcome can be achieved with low-cost and readily available implants when the principles of limb reconstruction are skillfully applied. DISCUSSION: Limb lengthening and reconstruction are based on universally applicable principles. These have to be applied regardless of the planning tool or surgical implant availability to achieve the goals of limb salvage and improved quality of life.

Paediatric infected femoral nonunion; mid-term results of a rare problem with a single-stage treatment and up to eleven and half years follow-up.

PURPOSE: Nonunion of femur fractures is a devastating disabling complication which is rare in children. The purpose of this study was to report the outcomes of treating infected femur nonunions in children by the Ilizarov fixator in one stage. PATIENTS AND METHODS: The study included 13 patients with unilateral infected nonunion of the femur with an average age of 9.1 years. The nonunion duration averaged 10.69 months. Ten cases were draining nonunions, and three patients had quiescent sinuses. Associated problems include shortening in all cases (mean 3.5 cm), joint stiffness (9 cases), and angular deformity (7 cases). The quiescent cases were treated by bloodless monofocal compression-distraction. Four draining cases were treated by debridement and compression with relengthening through nonunion site. The remaining six cases were treated by bifocal technique. RESULTS: The mean follow-up duration was 60.15 months. External fixation period averaged 5.3 months. Successful union was achieved in all patients. Recurrences of infection occurred in two cases including one with refracture and another one with late pathological fracture. Other complications included pin tract infections, one delayed union, two residual angular deformities, and 6 cm residual shortening in one patient. ASAMI bone results were excellent (8 patients), good (3 patients), fair (one patient), and poor (one patient). The functional results were excellent (9 cases), good (3cases), and fair (one case). CONCLUSIONS: The Ilizarov method provided a viable treatment option for treating paediatric infected femur nonunions in single stage of management with infection control in most cases and satisfactory outcomes.

Expanding the phenome and variome of skeletal dysplasia.

PURPOSE: To describe our experience with a large cohort (411 patients from 288 families) of various forms of skeletal dysplasia who were molecularly characterized. METHODS: Detailed phenotyping and next-generation sequencing (panel and exome). RESULTS: Our analysis revealed 224 pathogenic/likely pathogenic variants (54 (24%) of which are novel) in 123 genes with established or tentative links to skeletal dysplasia. In addition, we propose 5 genes as candidate disease genes with suggestive biological links (WNT3A, SUCO, RIN1, DIP2C, and PAN2). Phenotypically, we note that our cohort spans 36 established phenotypic categories by the International Skeletal Dysplasia Nosology, as well as 18 novel skeletal dysplasia phenotypes that could not be classified under these categories, e.g., the novel C3orf17-related skeletal dysplasia. We also describe novel phenotypic aspects of well-known disease genes, e.g., PGAP3-related Toriello-Carey syndrome-like phenotype. We note a strong founder effect for many genes in our cohort, which allowed us to calculate a minimum disease burden for the autosomal recessive forms of skeletal dysplasia in our population (7.16E-04), which is much higher than the global average. CONCLUSION: By expanding the phenotypic, allelic, and locus heterogeneity of skeletal dysplasia in humans, we hope our study will improve the diagnostic rate of patients with these conditions.

Gradual fibular transfer by ilizarov external fixator in post-traumatic and post-infection large tibial bone defects.

INTRODUCTION: Several reconstructive procedures have been used in management of large tibial bone defects including bone graft, bone transport (distraction osteogenesis) using various external fixators, and vascularized bone graft. Each of these procedures has its limitations and complications. The study describes gradual medial fibular transfer using Ilizarov external fixators in management of patients with large tibial defect, either following infection or trauma. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Between May 2011 and June 2013, 14 patients were prospectively included in the current study. The inclusion criteria were large tibial defect due to trauma or infection with severe soft tissue compromise, and small or poor tibial bone remnants making bone lengthening difficult. Exclusion criteria were patients with vascular or nerve injuries. The average age of the patients was 31.64 (± 6.5) years. Medial fibular transfer was done for all patients using Ilizarov at a rate of 0.5 mm twice daily. Iliac bone graft was used in all patients after the transfer. RESULTS: The average segmental bone defect of the tibia was (13.2 ± 2.6), ranging between 8 and 18.6 cm. Union was achieved in all patients with average fixator time was 32.42 (± 4.32) weeks. Average follow-up after removal of the fixator was 40.5 (± 6.9) months. CONCLUSION: Gradual fibular transfer by Ilizarov external fixator is a reliable technique in management of post-traumatic and post-infection large tibial bone defects with good clinical outcome, and with few complications.

Humeral lengthening and deformity correction.

INTRODUCTION: Ilizarov principles and hybrid fixation have improved the results of humeral lengthening. We reviewed the literature on humeral lengthening using different fixators with regard to indications, operative technique, results and complications. We also retrospectively reviewed 56 segments in 46 patients treated with humeral lengthening and deformity correction using Ilizarov external fixation. The etiology was achondroplasia (10 patients), epiphyseal injury (8 cases), infection (11 cases) and Erb's palsy (17 cases). The average age at surgery was 14 years (range 8-20 years). The patients were assessed clinically and radiographically and DASH score was available for 36 segments. Follow-up ranged from 1-11 years. The magnitude of lengthening achieved ranged from 5-15.5 cm with an average of 9 cm. The average healing index was 29.5 cm (range 26-37 days). The percentage of area of lengthening to the original length ranged from 25 to 100% with an average of 55%. The average DASH (available for 36 segments only) score ranged from 15-40 preoperatively to 7-16 (P = 0.04) at last follow-up. Functionally, all the patients returned to their preoperative jobs and daily activities including sports. COMPLICATIONS: Complications included pin track infection in 46 segments, radial nerve palsy which recovered completely in 2 patients, fracture of the regenerate in 7 cases and premature consolidation of the regenerate in one case. CONCLUSION: Humeral lengthening, whether unilateral or bilateral, is a valid method that improves the outcome following arm shortening and deformity correction, including angulation and rotation. Extensive lengthening up to 100% of the original length could be achieved without increasing the risk of complications. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: IV, retrospective cohort.

Hinged distraction of the hip joint in the treatment of Perthes disease: evaluation at skeletal maturity.

The aim of this work is to determine the effect of this type of treatment on the shape of the femoral head, the range of motion (ROM), radiological changes in the femoral head, and the prognosis of Perthes disease at skeletal maturity. From 1998 to 2007, 53 patients with Perthes disease were treated with a combination of soft tissue release and joint distraction with a hinged monolateral external fixator in 32 patients and by Ilizarov external fixator in 21 patients. Nineteen of our 53 patients attained skeletal maturity and were evaluated in our study. This study included 15 boys and four girls, mean age at surgery 9.3 years (range 7.2-13.1), and mean age at the last follow-up 17.4 years (range 14.9-21.3). The duration of symptoms varied from a period of 6 to 60 months before the operation. Radiographs taken during the fragmentation stage of the disease were classified by the lateral pillar classification of Herring; 19 of our patients attained skeletal maturity and were evaluated. Clinical assessment included the Harris hip score, hip ROM, and limb length discrepancy. Radiographic assessment included sharp transverse acetabular inclination, the uncoverage percentage, the epiphyseal index before surgery (modified Eyre-Brook), at frame removal, and at the last follow-up, the epiphyseal quotient (of Sjovall), and the Stulberg classification. The mean follow-up was 7.2 years (range 4.1-11.3). The mean Harris hip score was 87.1/100 (range 49.2-94.8). An improvement in hip (ROM) of 83.3% of the normal range was restored. There was a marked improvement in the degree of pain and limp postoperatively. The hip ROM was slightly limited in most patients, and seven patients had limb shortening of between 1 and 3 cm. The mean sharp transverse acetabular inclination of the affected side was 44° (range 35-51) compared with 37° for the unaffected side (P=0.042). The mean uncoverage percentage was 36% (range 24-45) compared with 21% for the unaffected side (P=0.027). The mean epiphyseal index was 0.74 (range 0.36-0.94) before surgery, 0.78 (range 0.49-0.89) at frame removal (P=0.017), and 0.80 (range 0.54-0.91) at the last follow-up (P=0.701). The epiphyseal quotient was 0.74 (range 0.51-0.94) and the Stulberg classifications were type II in eight patients, type III in seven patients, type IV in three patients, and type V in one patient. Arthrodiastasis of the hip joint with soft tissue release may represent a good contribution toward the treatment of Legg-Calvé-Perthes disease. This method of treatment has many advantages such as easy technique, minimal rate of complications, a short hospitalization period, correction of shortening because it adds to the length of the limb, and a higher rate of acceptable results than would be expected compared with other methods. It also improves the ROM, reduces superior and lateral subluxation, and provides better radiographic sphericity of the femoral head. In addition, it does not distort the anatomy of the pelvis or the proximal femur; it can be used with equal success in older children who are typically expected to have a poor prognosis. Distraction treatment is not limited by hip stiffness, degree of femoral head deformity, or subluxation, and can be used when other methods of treatment are contraindicated.

Arthrodiastasis of the hip.

BACKGROUND: Hip distraction in Legg-Calvé-Perthes disease unloads the joint, which negates the harmful effect of the stresses on the articular surface, which may promote the sound healing of the areas of necrosis. METHODS: Nonarticulated arthrodiastasis without soft tissue release using an Ilizarov external fixator was applied to 29 patients with Legg-Calvé-Perthes disease (older than 8 y at onset and lateral pillar type C or B). RESULTS: Follow-up period ranged from 2.5 to 11 years with an average of 7.5 years. Twenty-seven cases (93%) had improvement of the range of motion postoperatively. Preoperatively, all patients had constant pain, whereas at last follow-up 26 (86%) patients had no pain and 3 had an improvement. Stulberg classification was applied to 21 cases who reached skeletal maturity at last follow-up: 9 cases were type II, 7 cases were type III, 4 cases were type IV, and 1 case was type V. CONCLUSIONS: Nonarticulated hip distraction without soft tissue release seems to be a valid treatment option in cases with Legg-Calvé-Perthes disease where poor results are expected from conventional treatment.

Managing flexion knee deformity using a circular frame.

UNLABELLED: Knee flexion deformity can cause marked physical disability. Acute correction, whether nonoperative or operative, may lead to serious complications. We treated 50 patients (71 knees) between 1994 and 2002 with the Ilizarov external fixator. The deformity was gradually corrected using Ilizarov principles. Of the 50 patients, 29 were affected unilaterally and 21 bilaterally. In 15 patients, there were associated deformities. In no patient did we surgically release soft tissues; in two patients with arthrodesed or congenitally fused knees, we performed osteotomy before distraction. All patients were assessed clinically and radiographically. We assessed knee flexion angle, range of motion, stability, presence of pain, and healing index. After a minimum followup of 1 year (mean 3.7 years; range, 1-8 years), 18 of 20 of the preoperatively nonambulatory patients having bilateral surgery could walk at last followup. Complications included pin tract infection in all patients, knee subluxation in three patients, and fracture related to treatment in seven patients. We believe gradual correction using a circular frame an effective method to treat flexion knee contractures. In patients with bilateral deformities, improvement in functional activity may be expected in most patients. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level IV, therapeutic study. See the Guidelines for Authors for a complete description of levels of evidence.