Genetic polymorphism and expression of a highly potent scorpion depressant toxin enable refinement of the effects on insect Na channels and illuminate the key role of Asn-58.

We isolated from the venom of the scorpion Leiurus quinquestriatus hebraeus an extremely active anti-insect selective depressant toxin, Lqh-dprIT(3). Cloning of Lqh-dprIT(3) revealed a gene family encoding eight putative polypeptide variants (a-h) differing at three positions (37A/G, 50D/E, and 58N/D). All eight toxin variants were expressed in a functional form, and their toxicity to blowfly larvae, binding affinity for cockroach neuronal membranes, and CD spectra were compared. This analysis links Asn-58, which appears in variants a-d, to a toxin conformation associated with high binding affinity for insect sodium channels. Variants e-h, bearing Asp-58, exhibit a different conformation and are less potent. The importance of Asn-58, which is conserved in other depressant toxins, was further validated by construction and analysis of an N58D mutant of the well-characterized depressant toxin, LqhIT(2). Current and voltage clamp assays using the cockroach giant axon have shown that despite the vast difference in potency, the two types of Lqh-dprIT(3) variants (represented by Lqh-dprIT(3)-a and Lqh-dprIT(3)-e) are capable of blocking the action potentials (manifested as flaccid paralysis in blowfly larvae) and shift the voltage dependence of activation to more negative values, which typify the action of beta-toxins. Moreover, the stronger and faster shift in voltage dependence of activation and lack of tail currents observed in the presence of Lqh-dprIT(3)-a suggest an extremely efficient trapping of the voltage sensor compared to that of Lqh-dprIT(3)-e. The current clamp assays revealed that repetitive firing of the axon, which is reflected in contraction paralysis of blowfly larvae, can be obtained with either the less potent Lqh-dprIT(3)-e or the highly potent Lqh-dprIT(3)-a at more negative membrane potentials. Thus, the contraction symptoms in flies are likely to be dominated by the resting potential of neuronal membranes. This study clarifies the electrophysiological basis of the complex symptoms induced by scorpion depressant toxins in insects, and highlights for the first time molecular features involved in their activity.

A delta-conotoxin from Conus ermineus venom inhibits inactivation in vertebrate neuronal Na+ channels but not in skeletal and cardiac muscles.

We have isolated delta-conotoxin EVIA (delta-EVIA), a conopeptide in Conus ermineus venom that contains 32 amino acid residues and a six-cysteine/four-loop framework similar to that of previously described omega-, delta-, microO-, and kappa-conotoxins. However, it displays low sequence homology with the latter conotoxins. delta-EVIA inhibits Na+ channel inactivation with unique tissue specificity upon binding to receptor site 6 of neuronal Na+ channels. Using amphibian myelinated axons and spinal neurons, we showed that delta-EVIA increases the duration of action potentials by inhibiting Na+ channel inactivation. delta-EVIA considerably enhanced nerve terminal excitability and synaptic efficacy at the frog neuromuscular junction but did not affect directly elicited muscle action potentials. The neuronally selective property of delta-EVIA was confirmed by showing that a fluorescent derivative of delta-EVIA labeled motor nerve endings but not skeletal muscle fibers. In a heterologous expression system, delta-EVIA inhibited inactivation of rat neuronal Na+ channel subtypes (rNaV1.2a, rNaV1.3, and rNaV1.6) but did not affect rat skeletal (rNaV1.4) and human cardiac muscle (hNaV1.5) Na+ channel subtypes. delta-EVIA, in the range of concentrations used, is the first conotoxin found to affect neuronal Na+ channels without acting on Na+ channels of skeletal and cardiac muscle. Therefore, it is a unique tool for discriminating voltage-sensitive Na+ channel subtypes and for studying the distribution and modulation mechanisms of neuronal Na+ channels, and it may serve as a lead to design new drugs adapted to treat diseases characterized by defective nerve conduction.