Novel Personalized Cancer Vaccine Using Tumor Extracellular Vesicles with Attenuated Tumorigenicity and Enhanced Immunogenicity.

Cancer vaccines offer a promising avenue in cancer immunotherapy by inducing systemic, tumor-specific immune responses. Tumor extracellular vesicles (TEVs) are nanoparticles naturally laden with tumor antigens, making them appealing for vaccine development. However, their inherent malignant properties from the original tumor cells limit their direct therapeutic use. This study introduces a novel approach to repurpose TEVs as potent personalized cancer vaccines. The study shows that inhibition of both YAP and autophagy not only diminishes the malignancy-associated traits of TEVs but also enhances their immunogenic attributes by enriching their load of tumor antigens and adjuvants. These revamped TEVs, termed attenuated yet immunogenically potentiated TEVs (AI-TEVs), showcase potential in inhibiting tumor growth, both as a preventive measure and a possible treatment for recurrent cancers. They prompt a tumor-specific and enduring immune memory. In addition, by showing that AI-TEVs can counteract cancer growth in a personalized vaccine approach, a potential strategy is presented for developing postoperative cancer immunotherapy that's enduring and tailored to individual patients.

Selective Suppression of Integrin-Ligand Binding by Single Molecular Tension Probes Mediates Directional Cell Migration.

Cell migration interacting with continuously changing microenvironment, is one of the most essential cellular functions, participating in embryonic development, wound repair, immune response, and cancer metastasis. The migration process is finely tuned by integrin-mediated binding to ligand molecules. Although numerous biochemical pathways orchestrating cell adhesion and motility are identified, how subcellular forces between the cell and extracellular matrix regulate intracellular signaling for cell migration remains unclear. Here, it is showed that a molecular binding force across integrin subunits determines directional migration by regulating tension-dependent focal contact formation and focal adhesion kinase phosphorylation. Molecular binding strength between integrin αvß3 and fibronectin is precisely manipulated by developing molecular tension probes that control the mechanical tolerance applied to cell-substrate interfaces. This data reveals that integrin-mediated molecular binding force reduction suppresses cell spreading and focal adhesion formation, attenuating the focal adhesion kinase (FAK) phosphorylation that regulates the persistence of cell migration. These results further demonstrate that manipulating subcellular binding forces at the molecular level can recapitulate differential cell migration in response to changes of substrate rigidity that determines the physical condition of extracellular microenvironment. Novel insights is provided into the subcellular mechanics behind global mechanical adaptation of the cell to surrounding tissue environments featuring distinct biophysical signatures.

Hypoxic regulation of extracellular vesicles: Implications for cancer therapy.

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) play a pivotal role in intercellular communication and have been implicated in cancer progression. Hypoxia, a pervasive hallmark of cancer, is known to regulate EV biogenesis and function. Hypoxic EVs contain a specific set of proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, and metabolites, capable of reprogramming the biology and fate of recipient cells. Enhancing the intrinsic therapeutic efficacy of EVs can be achieved by strategically modifying their structure and contents. Moreover, the use of EVs as drug delivery vehicles holds great promise for cancer treatment. However, various hurdles must be overcome to enable their clinical application as cancer therapeutics. In this review, we aim to discuss the current knowledge on the hypoxic regulation of EVs. Additionally, we will describe the underlying mechanisms by which EVs contribute to cancer progression in hypoxia and outline the progress and limitations of hypoxia-related EV therapeutics for cancer.

Harnessing Oncolytic Extracellular Vesicles for Tumor Cell-Preferential Cytoplasmic Delivery of Misfolded Proteins for Cancer Immunotherapy.

In this study, extracellular vesicles (EVs) are reimagined as more than just a cellular waste disposal system and are repurposed for cancer immunotherapy. Potent oncolytic EVs (bRSVF-EVs) loaded with misfolded proteins (MPs) are engineered, which are typically considered cellular debris. By impairing lysosomal function using bafilomycin A1 and expressing the respiratory syncytial virus F protein, a viral fusogen, MPs are successfully loaded into the EVs expressing RSVF. bRSVF-EVs preferentially transplant a xenogeneic antigen onto cancer cell membranes in a nucleolin-dependent manner, triggering an innate immune response. Furthermore, bRSVF-EV-mediated direct delivery of MPs into the cancer cell cytoplasm initiates endoplasmic reticulum stress and immunogenic cell death (ICD). This mechanism of action leads to substantial antitumor immune responses in murine tumor models. Importantly, when combined with PD-1 blockade, bRSVF-EV treatment elicits robust antitumor immunity, resulting in prolonged survival and complete remission in some cases. Overall, the findings demonstrate that utilizing tumor-targeting oncolytic EVs for direct cytoplasmic delivery of MPs to induce ICD in cancer cells represents a promising approach for enhancing durable antitumor immunity.

Gulp1 deficiency augments bone mass in male mice by affecting osteoclasts due to elevated 17ß-estradiol levels.

The engulfment adaptor phosphotyrosine-binding domain containing 1 (GULP1) is an adaptor protein involved in the engulfment of apoptotic cells via phagocytosis. Gulp1 was first found to promote the phagocytosis of apoptotic cells by macrophages, and its role in various tissues, including neurons and ovaries, has been well studied. However, the expression and function of GULP1 in bone tissue are poorly understood. Consequently, to determine whether GULP1 plays a role in the regulation of bone remodeling in vitro and in vivo, we generated Gulp1 knockout (KO) mice. Gulp1 was expressed in bone tissue, mainly in osteoblasts, while its expression is very low in osteoclasts. Microcomputed tomography and histomorphometry analysis in 8-week-old male Gulp1 KO mice revealed a high bone mass in comparison with male wild-type (WT) mice. This was a result of decreased osteoclast differentiation and function in vivo and in vitro as confirmed by a reduced actin ring and microtubule formation in osteoclasts. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis further showed that both 17ß-estradiol (E2) and 2-hydroxyestradiol levels, and the E2/testosterone metabolic ratio, reflecting aromatase activity, were also higher in the bone marrow of male Gulp1 KO mice than in male WT mice. Consistent with mass spectrometry analysis, aromatase enzymatic activity was significantly higher in the bone marrow of male Gulp1 KO mice. Altogether, our results suggest that GULP1 deficiency decreases the differentiation and function of osteoclasts themselves and increases sex steroid hormone-mediated inhibition of osteoclast differentiation and function, rather than affecting osteoblasts, resulting in a high bone mass in male mice. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to explore the direct and indirect roles of GULP1 in bone remodeling, providing new insights into its regulation.

TGFBI remodels adipose metabolism by regulating the Notch-1 signaling pathway.

Extracellular matrix proteins are associated with metabolically healthy adipose tissue and regulate inflammation, fibrosis, angiogenesis, and subsequent metabolic deterioration. In this study, we demonstrated that transforming growth factor-beta (TGFBI), an extracellular matrix (ECM) component, plays an important role in adipose metabolism and browning during high-fat diet-induced obesity. TGFBI KO mice were resistant to adipose tissue hypertrophy, liver steatosis, and insulin resistance. Furthermore, adipose tissue from TGFBI KO mice contained a large population of CD11b+ and CD206+ M2 macrophages, which possibly control adipokine secretion through paracrine mechanisms. Mechanistically, we showed that inhibiting TGFBI-stimulated release of adipsin by Notch-1-dependent signaling resulted in adipocyte browning. TGFBI was physiologically bound to Notch-1 and stimulated its activation in adipocytes. Our findings revealed a novel protective effect of TGFBI deficiency in obesity that is realized via the activation of the Notch-1 signaling pathway.

Protein-based nanocages for vaccine development.

Protein nanocages have attracted considerable attention in various fields of nanomedicine due to their intrinsic properties, including biocompatibility, biodegradability, high structural stability, and ease of modification of their surfaces and inner cavities. In vaccine development, these protein nanocages are suited for efficient targeting to and retention in the lymph nodes and can enhance immunogenicity through various mechanisms, including excellent uptake by antigen-presenting cells and crosslinking with multiple B cell receptors. This review highlights the superiority of protein nanocages as antigen delivery carriers based on their physiological and immunological properties such as biodistribution, immunogenicity, stability, and multifunctionality. With a focus on design, we discuss the utilization and efficacy of protein nanocages such as virus-like particles, caged proteins, and artificial caged proteins against cancer and infectious diseases such as coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). In addition, we summarize available knowledge on the protein nanocages that are currently used in clinical trials and provide a general outlook on conventional distribution techniques and hurdles faced, particularly for therapeutic cancer vaccines.

Nuclear transport of STAT6 determines the matrix rigidity dependent M2 activation of macrophages.

Alternatively activated or M2 macrophages, as opposed to the well characterized pro-inflammatory or M1 macrophages, vitally regulate anti-inflammation, wound healing, and tissue repair to maintain tissue homeostasis. Although ubiquitous presence of macrophages in diverse tissues, exposed to different physical environments, infers distinct immune responses of M2 macrophages with high phenotypic heterogeneity, the underlying mechanism of how the varying extracellular mechanical conditions alter their immunological activation remains unclear. Here, we demonstrate that M2 activation requires a threshold mechanical cue from the extracellular microenvironment, and matrix rigidity-dependent macrophage spreading is mediated by the F-actin formation that is essential to regulate mechanosensitive M2 activation of macrophages. We identified a new mechanosensing function of STAT6 (signal transducer and activator of transcription 6), a key transcription factor for M2 activation, whose intranuclear transportation is promoted by the rigid matrix that facilitates the F-actin formation. Our findings further highlight the critical role of mechanosensitive M2 activation of macrophages in long-term adaptation to the extracellular microenvironment by bridging nuclear mechanosensation and immune responses.

Advantage of extracellular vesicles in hindering the CD47 signal for cancer immunotherapy.

The cluster of differentiation 47 (CD47) protein is abundantly expressed on various malignant cells and suppresses the phagocytic function of macrophages and dendritic cells. High CD47 expression levels are correlated with poor cancer survival. Antagonizing CD47 antibodies with potent antitumor effects have been developed in clinical trials, but have critical side effects, inducing anemia and thrombocytopenia. To develop a safe and potent CD47 blockade, we designed extracellular vesicles (EVs) harboring signal regulatory protein alpha (SIPRα)-EV-SIRPα (EVs that express SIPRα). EV-SIRPα showed minimal toxic effects on hematologic parameters and utilized RBCs as delivery vehicles to tumors rather than inducing anemia. EV-SIRPα inhibited ligation of residual CD47 molecules, which attribute to the EV-endocytosis-mediated CD47 depletion and steric hindrance of EV. In an immunologically cold tumor model, EV-SIRPα induced tumor-specific T-cell-mediated antitumor effects. When directly administered to the accessible lesions, EV-SIRPα monotherapy elicited an abscopal effect in the B16F10 tumor model by increasing immune cell infiltration and CD8+-mediated immunity against non-treated tumors. The combinational approach by loading doxorubicin into the EV-SIRPα dramatically reduced the tumor burden and led to 80% complete remission rate. Thus, a potent EV-based CD47 blockade that is hematologically safe, has efficient signaling blocking efficacy, and has systemic antitumor immunity against cancer is recommended.

Cancer-Associated Fibroblasts in the Hypoxic Tumor Microenvironment.

Solid cancers are composed of malignant cells and their surrounding matrix components. Hypoxia plays a critical role in shaping the tumor microenvironment that contributes to cancer progression and treatment failure. Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) are one of the most prominent components of the tumor microenvironment. CAFs are highly sensitive to hypoxia and participates in the crosstalk with cancer cells. Hypoxic CAFs modulate several mechanisms that induce cancer malignancy, such as extracellular matrix (ECM) remodeling, immune evasion, metabolic reprogramming, angiogenesis, metastasis, and drug resistance. Key signaling molecules regulating CAFs in hypoxia include transforming growth factor (TGF-ß) and hypoxia-inducible factors (HIFs). In this article, we summarize the mechanisms underlying the hypoxic regulation of CAFs and how hypoxic CAFs affect cancer development and progression. We also discuss the potential therapeutic strategies focused on targeting CAFs in the hypoxic tumor microenvironment.

Targeting angiogenic growth factors using therapeutic glycosaminoglycans on doppel-expressing endothelial cells for blocking angiogenic signaling in cancer.

Growth factors (GF) regulate normal development to cancer progression. GFs interact with extracellular matrix (ECM) biomolecules, such as heparin sulfate (HS) glycosaminoglycan (GAG), to enhance their stability and angiogenic signaling. Biomaterials that modulate GF activity by mimicking interactions observed in the native ECM could be designed as an effective treatment strategy. However, these materials failed to attenuate angiogenic signaling site-specifically without sparing normal tissues. In this work, we investigated the effect of a GAG-based biomaterial, which binds to the tumor endothelial cells (TEC), on the interaction among vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), its receptors-VEGFR2 and HS-and angiogenesis. Heparin-bile acid based conjugates, as ECM-mimicking component, were synthesized to selectively target the TEC marker doppel and doppel/VEGFR2 axis. The most effective compound LHbisD4 (low molecular weight heparin conjugated with 4 molecules of dimeric dexocholic acid) reduced tumor volume concentrated over doppel-expressing EC, and decreased tumor-interstitial VEGF without affecting its plasma concentration. Doppel-destined LHbisD4 captured VEGF, formed an intermediate complex with doppel, VEGFR2, and VEGF but did not induce active VEGFR2 dimerization, and competitively inhibited HS for VEGF binding. We thus show that GAG-based materials can be designed to imitate and leverage to control tumor microenvironment via bio-inspired interactions.

Rho-Kinase as a Target for Cancer Therapy and Its Immunotherapeutic Potential.

Cancer immunotherapy is fast rising as a prominent new pillar of cancer treatment, harnessing the immune system to fight against numerous types of cancer. Rho-kinase (ROCK) pathway is involved in diverse cellular activities, and is therefore the target of interest in various diseases at the cellular level including cancer. Indeed, ROCK is well-known for its involvement in the tumor cell and tumor microenvironment, especially in its ability to enhance tumor cell progression, migration, metastasis, and extracellular matrix remodeling. Importantly, ROCK is also considered to be a novel and effective modulator of immune cells, although further studies are needed. In this review article, we describe the various activities of ROCK and its potential to be utilized in cancer treatment, particularly in cancer immunotherapy, by shining a light on its activities in the immune system.

Fibrinolytic nanocages dissolve clots in the tumor microenvironment, improving the distribution and therapeutic efficacy of anticancer drugs.

Fibrin, one of the components of the extracellular matrix (ECM), acts as a transport barrier within the core of tumors by constricting the blood vessels and forming clots, leading to poor intratumoral distribution of anticancer drugs. Our group previously developed a microplasmin-based thrombolytic ferritin nanocage that efficiently targets and dissolves clots without causing systemic fibrinolysis or disrupting hemostatic clots. We hypothesized that the thrombolytic nanocage-mediated degradation of fibrin clots in the tumor ECM can lead to enhanced intratumoral drug delivery, especially for nanosized anticancer drugs. Fibrin clot deposition worsens after surgery and chemotherapy, further hindering drug delivery. Moreover, the risk of venous thromboembolism (VTE) also increases. Here, we used thrombolytic nanocages with multivalent clot-targeting peptides and fibrin degradation enzymes, such as microplasmin, to dissolve fibrin in the tumor microenvironment and named them fibrinolytic nanocages (FNCs). These FNCs target tumor clots specifically and effectively. FNCs efficiently dissolve fibrin clots inside of the tumor vessels, suggesting that they can mitigate the risk of VTE in cancer patients. Coadministration of FNC and doxorubicin led to improved chemotherapeutic activity in a syngeneic mouse melanoma model. Furthermore, the FNCs increased the distribution of Doxil/doxorubicin nanoparticles within mouse tumors. These results suggest that fibrinolytic cotherapy might help improve the therapeutic efficacy of anticancer nanomedicines. Thus, microplasmin-based fibrinolytic nanocages are promising candidates for this strategy due to their hemostatic safety and ability to home in on the tumor.

Statin in combination with cisplatin makes favorable tumor-immune microenvironment for immunotherapy of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma.

The purpose of this study was to determine whether statins can enhance anticancer effects in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) when used with cisplatin and act as immunogenic cell death (ICD) inducers that can be used in cancer immunotherapy. Statins alone showed both in vitro and in vivo inhibitory effects against HNSCC, and synergistic antitumor effects were observed when combined with cisplatin in a syngeneic murine HNSCC model. Statins increased calreticulin exposure and endoplasmic reticulum stress-related signals in HNSCC cells. In addition, it was confirmed that statins could activate antigen-presenting cells and tumor-specific CD8+ T cells with an increase in their numbers in the tumor tissues and draining lymph nodes, with this effect showing significant improvement following the combination therapy with cisplatin. Moreover, in triple combination with both cisplatin and anti-programmed cell death 1 receptor (anti-PD-1) antibody, statins dramatically induced further tumor eradication and improved the survival of tumor-bearing mice. Taken together, these results demonstrate that statins, administered in combination with anti-PD-1 antibody, could enhance the anticancer effect of cisplatin and potentiate the efficacy of immunotherapy for HNSCC and present a rationale for repurposing statins as an adjuvant immunotherapeutic option for HNSCC.

Caspase-cleavable peptide-doxorubicin conjugate in combination with CD47-antagonizing nanocage therapeutics for immune-mediated elimination of colorectal cancer.

Here we report a novel combination of a caspase-cleavable peptide-doxorubicin conjugate (MPD-1) with CD47-antagonizing nanocage therapeutics for the treatment of microsatellite-stable (MSS) colorectal cancer (CRC). MPD-1 (i) upregulated markers of immunogenic cell death (ICD) in tumor, and increased co-stimulatory markers on dendritic cells (DCs), (ii) enhanced CD8+ T cell infiltration and antigen presenting cell (APC) activation, and (iii) showed negligible off-target immune-related toxicity compared to free dox. Then, the CD47 antagonist FS nanocage, a SIRPα-expressing ferritin nanocage, was co-administered with MPD-1 that resulted in 95.2% (p < 0.001) tumor growth inhibition in an established CRC model. T cell-mediated elimination of tumors was also confirmed by the tumor-specific activation of T cells detected by IFNγ and tumor-free mice were observed (95%) that bared a memory response when re-challenged. The strategically developed MPD-1 is an ideal adjuvant to immunotherapy and the combination with FS nanocage triggers potent immunity against MSS CRC. In summary, we present an approach to initiate and stimulate immune-mediated eradication of cancer cells using synergistic immunogenic agents targeting the MSS CRC.

Nanocages displaying SIRP gamma clusters combined with prophagocytic stimulus of phagocytes potentiate anti-tumor immunity.

Antigen-presenting cells (APCs), including macrophages and dendritic cells (DCs), play a crucial role in bridging innate and adaptive immunity; thereby, innate immune checkpoint blockade-based therapy is an attractive approach for the induction of sustainable tumor-specific immunity. The interaction between the cluster of differentiation 47 (CD47) on tumor and signal-regulatory protein alpha (SIRPα) on phagocytic cells inhibits the phagocytic function of APCs, acting as a "don't eat me" signal. Accordingly, CD47 blockade is known to increase tumor cell phagocytosis, eliciting tumor-specific CD8+ T-cell immunity. Here, we introduced a nature-derived nanocage to deliver SIRPγ for blocking of antiphagocytic signaling through binding to CD47 and combined it with prophagocytic stimuli using a metabolic reprogramming reagent for APCs (CpG-oligodeoxynucleotides). Upon delivering the clustered SIRPγ variant, the nanocage showed enhanced CD47 binding profiles on tumor cells, thereby promoting active engulfment by phagocytes. Moreover, combination with CpG potentiated the prophagocytic ability, leading to the establishment of antitumorigenic surroundings. This combination treatment could competently inhibit tumor growth by invigorating APCs and CD8+ T-cells in TMEs in B16F10 orthotopic tumor models, known to be resistant to CD47-targeting therapeutics. Collectively, enhanced delivery of an innate immune checkpoint antagonist with metabolic modulation stimuli of immune cells could be a promising strategy for arousing immune responses against cancer.

Anticoagulation therapy promotes the tumor immune-microenvironment and potentiates the efficacy of immunotherapy by alleviating hypoxia.

PURPOSE: Here, this study verifies that cancer-associated thrombosis (CAT) accelerates hypoxia, which is detrimental to the tumor immune microenvironment by limiting tumor perfusion. Therefore, we designed an oral anticoagulant therapy to improve the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment and potentiate the efficacy of immunotherapy by alleviating tumor hypoxia. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: A novel oral anticoagulant (STP3725) was developed to consistently prevent CAT formation. Tumor perfusion and hypoxia were analyzed with or without treating STP3725 in wild-type and P selectin knockout mice. Immunosuppressive cytokines and cells were analyzed to evaluate the alteration of the tumor microenvironment. Effector lymphocyte infiltration in tumor tissue was assessed by congenic CD45.1 mouse lymphocyte transfer model with or without anticoagulant therapy. Finally, various tumor models including K-Ras mutant spontaneous cancer model were employed to validate the role of the anticoagulation therapy in enhancing the efficacy of immunotherapy. RESULTS: CAT was demonstrated to be one of the perfusion barriers, which fosters immunosuppressive microenvironment by accelerating tumor hypoxia. Consistent treatment of oral anticoagulation therapy was proved to promote tumor immunity by alleviating hypoxia. Furthermore, this resulted in decrease of both hypoxia-related immunosuppressive cytokines and myeloid-derived suppressor cells while improving the spatial distribution of effector lymphocytes and their activity. The anticancer efficacy of αPD-1 antibody was potentiated by co-treatment with STP3725, also confirmed in various tumor models including the K-Ras mutant mouse model, which is highly thrombotic. CONCLUSIONS: Collectively, these findings establish a rationale for a new and translational combination strategy of oral anticoagulation therapy with immunotherapy, especially for treating highly thrombotic cancers. The combination therapy of anticoagulants with immunotherapies can lead to substantial improvements of current approaches in the clinic.

Statin-mediated inhibition of RAS prenylation activates ER stress to enhance the immunogenicity of KRAS mutant cancer.

BACKGROUND: Statins preferentially promote tumor-specific apoptosis by depleting isoprenoid such as farnesyl pyrophosphate and geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate. However, statins have not yet been approved for clinical cancer treatment due, in part, to poor understanding of molecular determinants on statin sensitivity. Here, we investigated the potential of statins to elicit enhanced immunogenicity of KRAS-mutant (KRASmut) tumors. METHODS: The immunogenicity of treated cancer cells was determined by western blot, flow cytometry and confocal microscopy. The immunotherapeutic efficacy of mono or combination therapy using statin was assessed in KRASmut tumor models, including syngeneic colorectal cancer and genetically engineered lung and pancreatic tumors. Using NanoString analysis, we analyzed how statin influenced the gene signatures associated with the antigen presentation of dendritic cells in vivo and evaluated whether statin could induce CD8+ T-cell immunity. Multiplex immunohistochemistry was performed to better understand the complicated tumor-immune microenvironment. RESULTS: Statin-mediated inhibition of KRAS prenylation provoked severe endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress by attenuating the anti-ER stress effect of KRAS mutation, thereby resulting in the immunogenic cell death (ICD) of KRASmut cancer cells. Moreover, statin-mediated ICD enhanced the cross-priming ability of dendritic cells, thereby provoking CD8+ T-cell immune responses against KRASmut tumors. Combination therapy using statin and oxaliplatin, an ICD inducer, significantly enhanced the immunogenicity of KRASmut tumors and promoted tumor-specific immunity in syngeneic and genetically engineered KRASmut tumor models. Along with immune-checkpoint inhibitors, the abovementioned combination therapy overcame resistance to PD-1 blockade therapies, improving the survival rate of KRASmut tumor models. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest that KRAS mutation could be a molecular target for statins to elicit potent tumor-specific immunity.

Endothelial angiogenic activity and adipose angiogenesis is controlled by extracellular matrix protein TGFBI.

Several studies have suggested that extracellular matrix (ECM) remodeling and the microenvironment are tightly associated with adipogenesis and adipose angiogenesis. In the present study, we demonstrated that transforming growth factor-beta induced (TGFBI) suppresses angiogenesis stimulated by adipocyte-conditioned medium (Ad-CM), both in vitro and in vivo. TGFBI knockout (KO) mice exhibited increased numbers of blood vessels in adipose tissue, and blood vessels from these mice showed enhanced infiltration into Matrigel containing Ad-CM. The treatment of Ad-CM-stimulated SVEC-10 endothelial cells with TGFBI protein reduced migration and tube-forming activity. TGFBI protein suppressed the activation of the Src and extracellular signaling-related kinase signaling pathways of these SVEC-10 endothelial cells. Our findings indicated that TGFBI inhibited adipose angiogenesis by suppressing the activation of Src and ERK signaling pathways, possibly because of the stimulation of the angiogenic activity of endothelial cells.

Design of PD-1-decorated nanocages targeting tumor-draining lymph node for promoting T cell activation.

Targeted delivery of immunomodulatory molecules to the lymph nodes is an attractive means of improving the efficacy of anti-cancer immunotherapy. In this study, to improve the efficacy of PD-1 blockade-based therapy, nanocages were designed by surface engineering to decorate a programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1) that is capable of binding against programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) and -ligand 2 (PD-L2). This nanocage-mediated multivalent interaction remarkably increases the binding affinity and improves the antagonistic activity compared to free soluble PD-1. In addition, with the desirable nanocage size for optimal tumor-draining lymph node (TDLN) targeting (approximately 20 nm), rapid draining and increased accumulation into the TDLNs were observed. Moreover, the interference of the PD-1/PD-L axis with ultra-high affinity in the tumor microenvironment (effector phase) and the TDLNs (cognitive phase) significantly enhances the dendritic cell-mediated tumor-specific T cell activation. This characteristic successfully inhibited tumor growth and induced complete tumor eradication in some mice. Thus, the delivery of immunomodulatory molecules with nanocages can be a highly efficient strategy to achieve stronger anti-tumor immunity.