Otariid gammaherpesvirus 1 in South American fur seals (Arctocephalus australis) and a novel related herpesvirus in free-ranging South American sea lions (Otaria byronia): Prevalence and effects of age, sex, and sample type.

Otariid gammaherpesvirus 1 (OtGHV1) is associated with high rates of urogenital carcinoma in free-ranging California sea lions (Zalophus californianus; CSL), and until recently was reported only in the Northern Hemisphere. The objective of this study was to survey free-ranging South American sea lions (Otaria byronia; SASL) and South American fur seals (Arctocephalus australis: SAFS) in Punta San Juan, Peru for OtGHV1 and to determine prevalence characteristics. Twenty-one percent (14/67) of urogenital swabs collected over three years (2011, 2014, 2015) from live pinnipeds of both species tested positive with a pan-herpesvirus conventional PCR. Sequencing of SAFS amplicons revealed 100% homology to OtGHV1 at the DNA polymerase, glycoprotein B, and viral bcl2-like genes. Sequencing of SASL amplicons revealed a novel related virus, herein called Otariid gammaherpesvirus 8 (OtGHV8). For comparison of sample sites, urogenital, conjunctival, and oropharyngeal swabs collected from 136 live pinnipeds of both species at Punta San Juan between 2011-2018 were then assayed using quantitative PCR for a segment of the OtGHV1/8 DNA polymerase gene using a qPCR assay now determined to cross-react between the two viruses. In total, across both species, 38.6% (51/132) of urogenital swabs, 5.6% (4/71) of conjunctival swabs, and 1.1% (1/90) of oropharyngeal swabs were positive for OtGHV1/8, with SASL only positive on urogenital swabs. Results from SASL were complicated by the finding of OtGHV8, necessitating further study to determine prevalence of OtGHV1 versus OtGHV8 using an alternate assay. Results from SAFS suggest a potential relationship between OtGHV1 in SAFS and CSL. Though necropsy surveillance in SAFS is very limited, geographic patterns of OtGHV1-associated urogenital carcinoma in CSL and the tendency of herpesviruses to cause more detrimental disease in aberrant hosts suggests that it is possible that SAFS may be the definitive host of OtGHV1, which gives further insight into the diversity and phyogeography of this clade of related gammaherpesviruses.

Regional Anesthesia of the Dentition in Bennett's Wallaby (Macropus rufogriseus): Anatomical Landmarks and Approaches Assessed with Computed Tomography and Gross Dissection.

Dental disease is common in captive-managed macropods, including Bennett's wallabies, and is a significant cause of morbidity and mortality. Dental extractions and debridement of diseased tissue is often necessary for those undergoing treatment for severe dental disease. Regional anesthesia of the dentition is considered standard of care for domestic animals undergoing orofacial surgery, however, it is not routinely performed in macropods due to limited information on dental anatomy and block approaches. Regional block descriptions for the infraorbital, maxillary, inferior alveolar, and mental blocks in domestic dogs and cats were evaluated and adapted for use in Bennett's wallabies based on descriptions of their anatomy and examination of 2 skulls. These approaches were then performed on cadaver heads with iohexol and methylene blue dye, and block placement was assessed on computed tomography scans and by gross dissection. All block approaches described in this study resulted in appropriate placement of regional anesthesia of the dentition in Bennett's wallabies. They can thus be used by clinicians to improve the intra and postoperative pain control of patients and provide a high level of veterinary care.

GLOBAL RETROSPECTIVE ANALYSIS OF PATHOLOGICAL FINDINGS IN ZOO-MANAGED GOELDI'S MONKEYS (CALLIMICO GOELDII), 1965-2018.

As part of the collaborative efforts and goals of managing zoo-housed Goeldi's monkeys, or callimicos (Callimico goeldii), a retrospective review of gross and histopathological postmortem examination reports submitted to the International Studbook Coordinator was carried out by veterinary representatives of the Species Survival Plan to investigate disease trends. A total of 1,887 postmortem reports (1965-2018) collected from more than 150 institutions were reviewed. Histologic findings from 862 postmortem reports and primary causes of mortality were compiled to determine the most common findings. Within the study population, 419 individuals (48.6%) were male, 383 (44.4%) female, and the remaining 60 (7%) of undetermined sex. The primary lesion at death in adults was chronic renal disease. The other prevalent lesions included cardiac disease, myelolipomas, enteritis, colitis, and hepatitis. In Great Britain and mainland Europe, Yersinia spp. infection had significantly higher prevalence than in North American callimico populations. Multiple lesions affecting more than one organ system were identified in many animals of this study population. Results also showed that for adult callimicos in zoological institutions in North America, Europe, and Great Britain, life span has been increasing over the last 50 yr.

Complications associated with total hip arthroplasty in four large nondomestic felids.

CASE DESCRIPTION: A 9-year-old 37-kg sexually intact male snow leopard (Panthera uncia) with no history of lameness but radiographic evidence of right femoral subluxation and flattening of both femoral heads, 2 juvenile (< 1 year old) 25-kg sexually intact male cheetahs (Acinoynx jubatus) with unilateral hind limb lameness resulting from trauma, and an 11-year-old 110-kg sexually intact female Amur tiger (Panthera tigris altaica) with a 2-year history of left hip joint osteoarthritis were examined. CLINICAL FINDINGS: No clinically relevant clinical findings other than hip joint problems were identified. All 4 felids underwent staged bilateral (snow leopard) or unilateral (cheetahs and tiger [Panthera tigris]) total hip arthroplasty (THA). TREATMENT AND OUTCOME: In the snow leopard, both femoral THA components were found to be luxated 1 year after surgery. Treatment consisted of autogenous corticocancellous rib graft augmentation of the dorsal acetabular rims and synthetic suture capsulorrhaphies. The snow leopard lived for an additional 4 years with no additional THA-related complications. In the other 3 animals, catastrophic complications (luxation in the cheetahs and femoral fracture in the tiger) occurred shortly after THA. The THA implants were removed, and excision arthroplasty was performed. Long-term outcomes were good in all 3. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Findings underscore the challenges associated with THA in large nondomestic felids. Given the high risk for early catastrophic failure as a result of luxation or fracture, plans must be made and resources must be available in case revision surgery or implant removal with excision arthroplasty becomes necessary.

Shell Lesions Associated With Emydomyces testavorans Infection in Freshwater Aquatic Turtles.

A newly described onygenalean fungus, Emydomyces testavorans, has been isolated from ulcerative shell and skin lesions of freshwater aquatic chelonians. To investigate the shell lesions associated with infection and determine if any lesional features were unique to E. testavorans, tissues from turtles housed in zoological institutions (n = 45) in the United States and free-living turtles (n = 5) submitted for diagnostic biopsy or necropsy were examined. Free-living turtles were from geographically distinct habitats in Florida (n = 1) and Washington (n = 4) at the time of sampling. Histologic shell sections were evaluated for the presence or absence of specific lesional features. Infection with E. testavorans was evaluated in all cases by screening GMS (Grocott-Gomori's methenamine silver)-stained histologic sections for the presence of morphologically consistent fungi and by quantitative PCR (polymerase chain reaction) on representative frozen tissue or formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded sections. Additionally, culture was performed for 15 cases with available fresh/frozen tissue. In total, there were 17 PCR-confirmed E. testavorans cases, 29 cases with morphologically consistent fungi on GMS-stained sections, and 21 cases of shell lesions without histologic or molecular evidence of E. testavorans infection. Epithelial inclusion cysts, defined as cystic structures within the dermis lined by keratinized stratified squamous epithelium and containing necrotic bone and keratin debris, were significantly (P < .01) associated with E. testavorans infection. Other significantly associated shell lesions included squamous metaplasia, hyperkeratosis, inflammation, and osteonecrosis (P < .05). This study identified characteristic shell lesions associated with E. testavorans infection. Further studies to prove causality are needed.

SERUM ACUTE-PHASE PROTEINS IN BOTTLENOSE DOLPHINS (TURSIOPS TRUNCATUS) AND CORRELATION WITH COMMONLY UTILIZED INFLAMMATORY INDICES.

Acute-phase proteins (APP) are the foundation to the innate immune response and valuable biomarkers that increase with inflammation, infection, neoplasia, stress, and trauma.2,4,16 Little is known about the acute-phase response in cetaceans and if these proteins can be used for health monitoring in individuals and free-ranging populations. The purpose of this study was to characterize serum concentrations of haptoglobin (Hp) and serum amyloid A (SAA), as well as electrophoretic profiles of common bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) in free-ranging (n = 33) and professional care (n = 27) settings. Results were correlated to commonly utilized inflammatory indices including erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR), fibrinogen, total white blood cell count (WBC), and absolute neutrophil count. SAA levels, measured with a dolphin-specific enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), were significantly higher (P = 0.05) in free-ranging dolphins (mean = 4.26; SE = 1.12) when compared with those under professional care (mean = 1.82; SE = 0.45). For dolphins under professional care, a statistically significant correlation was identified between ESR and Hp (P < 0.001; r = 0.69), ESR and SAA (P < 0.001; r = 0.67), fibrinogen and Hp (P = 0.001; r = 0.58), and fibrinogen and SAA (P = 0.002; r = 0.56). In addition, there was a significant correlation between WBC and SAA (P = 0.01; r = 0.38) and absolute neutrophil count and SAA (P = 0.04; r = 0.32). There were no significant correlations between study variables observed in free-ranging dolphins. The variable correlation of APPs with commonly utilized inflammatory indices demonstrates that these proteins are independent measures of inflammation with unique sensitivity, specificity, and timeline of expression. The results of this study contribute to improved health monitoring of dolphins and have the potential to assist in identification of compromised health.

Lumbar hemilaminectomy for treatment of diskospondylitis in an aardvark (Orycteropus afer).

CASE DESCRIPTION A 17-year-old sexually intact male aardvark (Orycteropus afer) was evaluated because of hind limb proprioception deficits and ataxia. CLINICAL FINDINGS Results of examination and CT suggested a diagnosis of intervertebral disk disease and diskospondylitis at the L2-3 intervertebral space. Magnetic resonance imaging of the vertebral column also indicated intervertebral disk rupture with spinal cord compression and inflammation of the adjacent epaxial musculature TREATMENT AND OUTCOME Hemilaminectomy was performed according to the technique described for dogs. Anatomic variations encountered intraoperatively limited the ability to completely remove the affected disk material; however, adequate decompression of the spinal cord was achieved. Microbial culture and susceptibility testing of surgical biopsy specimens yielded a multidrug-resistant Enterococcus faecalis that was treated with a 10-week course of linezolid. Intensive postoperative care required constant rate infusions for adequate sedation, analgesia, and antimicrobial treatment. Dehiscence of the surgical site occurred 3 weeks after surgery and was treated with negative pressure wound therapy. Physical rehabilitation initiated 5 days after surgery progressed from passive range of motion to the use of an underwater treadmill. Despite initial improvement, acute deterioration occurred 5.5 months after surgery. Repeated CT revealed progression of diskospondylitis, which prompted euthanasia. CLINICAL RELEVANCE Postoperative hind limb paresis and paralysis in this species presented considerable challenges for care and rehabilitation. Patient demeanor, size, and anatomy required development of custom mechanical devices. Despite the inability to eliminate the multidrug-resistant bacterial osteomyelitis that resulted in the death of this aardvark, information gained may benefit treatment of subsequent patients.

ASSESSMENT OF POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS, ORGANOCHLORINE PESTICIDES, AND POLYBROMINATED DIPHENYL ETHERS IN THE BLOOD OF HUMBOLDT PENGUINS ( SPHENISCUS HUMBOLDTI) FROM THE PUNTA SAN JUAN MARINE PROTECTED AREA, PERU.

Persistent organic pollutants were assessed in Humboldt Penguins ( Spheniscus humboldti) from the Punta San Juan Marine Protected Area, Peru, in the austral winter of 2009. Plasma samples from 29 penguins were evaluated for 31 polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) congeners and 11 organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) by using gas chromatography coupled to an ion trap mass spectrometer and for 15 polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) congeners by using gas chromatography coupled with high-resolution mass spectrometry. The detection rate for PCBs in the samples was 69%, with congeners 105, 118, 180, and 153 most commonly detected. The maximum ΣPCB concentration was 25 ng/g. The detection rate for DDT, DDD, and/or DDE was higher than for other OCP residues (90%; maximum concentration=10 ng/g). The detection rate for PBDEs was 86%, but most concentrations were low (maximum ΣPBDE concentration=3.81 ng/g). This crucial breeding population of S. humboldti was not exposed to contaminants at levels detrimental to health and reproductive success; however, the identified concentrations of legacy and recently emerged toxicants underscore the need for temporal monitoring and diligence to protect this endangered species in the face of regional human population and industrial growth. These results also provide key reference values for spatial comparisons throughout the range of this species.

Comparison of 3 Methods for Preventing Perianesthetic Hypothermia in Callimicos (Callimico goeldii).

Perianesthetic hypothermia is one of the most common complications in veterinary anesthesia, especially in small patients with a large body surface area to mass ratio. During anesthesia, body heat can be lost through 4 mechanisms-radiation, convection, conduction, and evaporation-but anesthetists frequently address only one mechanism at a time. Here we sought to evaluate 3 methods of preventing perianesthetic hypothermia in callimicos (Callimico goeldii). In our experience, these small NHP routinely become hypothermic under even brief inhalant anesthesia. To address multiple routes of heat loss, animals received 1 of 3 treatments: 1) placement of a reflective blanket over the patient to limit radiative heat loss to the surrounding environment; 2) placement of a reflective blanket and use of a heated anesthetic circuit, which warmed the inspired air to 104 °F (40 °C), and 3) placement under the patient of a forced-air warming blanket set at 109.4 °F (43 °C). Sources of radiative heat loss were assessed by using infrared thermography. Each animal was anesthetized with isoflurane and maintained in sternal recumbency in a temperature-controlled room (65 °F; 18.3 °C); esophageal core body temperature was monitored every 5 min for a total of 30 min. The rate of heat loss did not differ between the use of a reflective blanket with or without a heated anesthetic circuit. Animals provided the forced-air warming blanket experienced a slight increase in average body temperature. According to these findings, an underbody warm-air blanket provided the best protection against hypothermia for callimicos in sternal recumbency.

TREATMENT OF DIABETES MELLITUS IN A GOLDEN LION TAMARIN (LEONTOPITHECUS ROSALIA) WITH THE GLUCAGON-LIKE PEPTIDE-1 MIMETIC EXENATIDE.

An 8-yr-old male golden lion tamarin ( Leontopithecus rosalia ) was diagnosed with diabetes mellitus based on hyperglycemia and persistent glycosuria. Initial treatment consisted of the oral antihyperglycemic medications glipizide and metformin that resulted in decreased blood glucose concentrations; however, marked glycosuria persisted. Insufficient improvement on oral antihyperglycemic therapy and poor feasibility of daily subcutaneous insulin therapy led to an investigation into an alternative therapy with extended-release exenatide, a glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) mimetic, at a dosage of 0.13 mg/kg subcutaneously once per month. Following treatment with exenatide, the persistent glycosuria resolved, the animal maintained normal blood glucose concentrations, and had lower serum fructosamine concentrations compared to pretreatment levels. Based on these findings, extended-release exenatide could be considered as a therapeutic option in nonhuman primates with diabetes mellitus that do not respond to oral antihyperglycemics and in which daily subcutaneous insulin is not feasible.

HYPERCALCEMIA AND METASTATIC MINERALIZATION INVOLVING FOOTPADS IN ROCK HYRAXES (PROCAVIA CAPENSIS).

Three rock hyraxes (Procavia capensis) maintained in a zoological collection had chronic hypercalcemia and azotemia. In addition, all animals displayed signs of lameness due to footpad lesions that were histologically characterized as marked metastatic mineralization with granulomatous inflammation, reminiscent of calcinosis circumscripta. Although the animals were managed with aggressive fluid therapy, calciuresis, and dietary modification, all were eventually humanely euthanized due to the severity of their footpad lesions and/or progression of renal disease. Metastatic mineralization was also noted in other soft tissues among the three cases, including the stomach, colon, lung, vascular wall, ovary, and kidney. Varying degrees of interstitial nephritis were confirmed on postmortem examination, and in the absence of other causes for hypercalcemia, metastatic mineralization was presumably the consequence renal dysfunction. The renal pathway is the primary mode of calcium excretion in the rock hyrax. In renal dysfunction, hypercalcemia may develop secondary to decreased calcium excretion. Footpad mineralization is an uncommon sequel to renal dysfunction in domestic animals but has not been reported in rock hyraxes. A retrospective review of mortality data in this collection revealed a notable prevalence of renal lesions, including two additional animals with metastatic mineralization and renal dysfunction. Expanding knowledge of renal diseases will further guide preventative and clinical measures, including screening for metastatic mineralization and therapeutic trials for management of hypercalcemia and calcium mineral deposition in the footpads and other soft tissues.

RETROSPECTIVE REVIEW OF THE PREVALENCE OF MYELOLIPOMA IN GOELDI'S MONKEYS (CALLIMICO GOELDII).

Myelolipomas are mesenchymal tumors composed of adipose and hematopoietic tissue. They have been reported in many species, including domestic dogs and cats, birds, mustelids, wild felids, and nonhuman primates. Myelolipomas in Callitrichidae have been reported at postmortem examination and rarely antemortem. Multiple cases of hepatic myelolipomas associated with morbidity in Chicago Zoological Society's collection of Goeldi's monkeys (Callimico goeldii) prompted a global retrospective study to determine the prevalence and investigate factors associated with this condition. A total of 842 postmortem examination reports (1965-2013) collected from 133 captive collections were reviewed. Myelolipomas were reported in 17.2% (n=145) of animals, with significantly more female cases than male (P=0.023). There was a significantly older mean age at death in affected animals (134 months) compared to unaffected animals (79 months) (P<0.0001). Myelolipomas were diagnosed in the liver in all affected animals, and rarely in the adrenal or spleen. One in five (22.1%) affected Callimico had notable morbidity associated with this disease, which is markedly different from the primarily benign reports in other species. To identify disease, prevent morbidity from hepatic myelolipoma, and improve care of Callimico species in zoological collections, new Species Survival Plan (SSP) medical management recommendations include incorporating abdominal ultrasonographic examination during routine physical examinations in addition to previously recommended hematological and serum biochemical evaluations. Future studies are merited to examine the prevalence, risk factors, health effects, and treatment options of myelolipoma in living collections.

Diagnosis and treatment of chronic lymphocytic leukemia in a bat-eared fox (Otocyon megalotis).

CASE DESCRIPTION: Severe lymphocytosis and leukocytosis were detected during examination of a 10-year-old sexually intact male bat-eared fox (Otocyon megalotis) with regionally extensive alopecia. CLINICAL FINDINGS: A CBC revealed severe leukocytosis (39,100 leukocytes/µL) and marked lymphocytosis (90%). A blood smear consisted predominantly of intermediate-sized lymphocytes and few large lymphocytes, with mild to moderate nuclear atypia. These findings were highly suggestive of chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL). Cytologic evaluation of bone marrow aspirates revealed no evidence of overt malignancy, with 10% of all cells identified as small to intermediate-sized mature lymphocytes. TREATMENT AND OUTCOME: Treatment with chlorambucil and prednisone administered orally over a 1.8-year period decreased the leukocyte and lymphocyte counts to within reference intervals with no adverse effects. Although repeated flow cytometry revealed evidence of residual disease, the fox remained free of clinical disease, and WBC counts were within reference intervals for this species. At 22 months after initial evaluation, the fox was euthanized because of debilitating arthritis. No evidence of CLL was detected grossly or histologically during necropsy. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: To the authors' knowledge, this was the first report of CLL in a bat-eared fox and first successful treatment in a nondomestic carnivore. Treatment in accordance with a chemotherapeutic protocol successfully resolved the leukocytosis and lymphocytosis with no serious adverse effects. Description of this fox and the treatment protocol should provide a valuable reference for future cases in this and other nondomestic canine species.

Differences in immune cell function between tuberculosis positive and negative Asian elephants.

Tuberculosis is an important health concern for Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) populations worldwide, however, mechanisms underlying susceptibility to Mycobacterium tuberculosis are unknown. Proliferative responses assessed via brominated uridine incorporation and cytokine expression measured by real-time RT-PCR were evaluated in peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC) cultures from 8 tuberculosis negative and 8 positive Asian elephants. Cultures were stimulated with Mycobacterium bovis purified protein derivative (PPD-B), M. tuberculosis culture filtrate protein (CFP)-10, and Mycobacterium avium PPD (PPD-A). Following stimulation with PPD-B, proliferation was higher (α = 0.005) in positive samples; no significant differences were detected following CFP-10 or PPD-A stimulation. Tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-12, and interferon (IFN)-γ expression was greater in samples from positive elephants following stimulation with PPD-B (α = 0.025) and CFP-10 (α = 0.025 TNF-α and IL-12; α = 0.005 IFN-γ). Stimulation with PPD-A also produced enhanced IL-12 expression in positive samples (α = 0.025). Findings suggested that differences in immune cell function exist between tuberculosis positive and negative elephants. Proliferative responses and expression of TNF-α, IL-12, and IFN-γ in response to stimulation with PPD-B and CFP-10 differ between tuberculosis positive and negative elephants, suggesting these parameters may be important to tuberculosis immunopathogenesis in this species.

Multifocal Cryptococcus neoformans var. neoforms: infection, treatment, and monitoring by serial computed tomography in a Schmidt's red-tailed guenon (Cercopithecus ascanius schmidti).

A 9-yr-old, female, intact Schmidt's red-tailed guenon (Cercopithecus ascanius schmidti) presented with an acute swelling, consistent with an abscess over the right hip. Cytology, culture, and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) results from material within the abscess and serum titers were all indicative of a Cryptococcus neoformans infection. Thoracic radiographs and computed tomography (CT) revealed a consolidated right caudal lung lobe associated with an endobronchial mass. Pulmonary Cryptococcus infection and systemic disease was confirmed with positive brush cytology and bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL). Culture and sensitivity, minimum inhibitory concentration values, and serum fluconazole level results were used to develop and monitor treatment efficacy for this animal. Sequential thoracic radiographs, CT images, bronchoscopy, BAL, and serology were used to monitor response to therapy. Five months after initial diagnosis, pregnancy was confirmed and the frequency of immobilizations for recheck serology and diagnostic imaging was decreased to lessen radiation exposure and physiologic stress to the dam and fetus. Long-term administration of oral fluconazole was well accepted and effective at treating the multifocal C. neoformans infection. No long-term adverse effects of therapy were observed, and repeated diagnostics were well tolerated. Advanced imaging modalities and serum drug levels were critical to the assessment, monitoring, and treatment of infection in this animal and should be considered for other cases.

Cystic endometrial hyperplasia and pyometra in three captive African hunting dogs (Lycaon pictus).

Pyometra and cystic endometrial hyperplasia are common in domestic canids and are suspected to develop as a consequence of elevated progesterone levels. Reports of uterine pathology in exotic canids are limited, with some speculating of association with contraception. This report describes pyometra, cystic endometrial hyperplasia, and ovariohysterectomy in three African hunting dogs (Lycaon pictus). Ovarian corpora lutea were detected in two of the dogs, suggesting endogenous progesterone production. One dog had a uterine adenocarcinoma and two had ovarian granulosa cell tumors. Clinical signs included anorexia, lethargy, vulvar discharge, polyuria, polydipsia, and abdominal distention. Diagnosis was based on clinical signs, physical examination, bloodwork, radiography, and ultrasonography, with confirmation through histopathologic evaluation of tissues. Cystic endometrial hyperplasia, pyometra, and uterine neoplasia have rarely been diagnosed in exotic canids; however, they should be considered as differential diagnoses in intact bitches that present with suspected reproductive disease.

Dilated ureters, renal dysplasia, and chronic renal failure in an African elephant (Loxodonta africana).

An ultrasonographic reproductive health examination of a 26-yr-old female African elephant (Loxodonta africana) revealed bilateral ureteral wall thickening and dilatation. On ultrasonographic examination, the bladder and both ureters were normal near the trigone; however, the cranial-most aspect of each ureter was dilated and thickened for a length of 30-50 cm. The same month, elevated blood creatinine (3.0 mg/dl), and urine protein-creatinine ratio (4.0) were observed. Chronic renal failure was diagnosed based on these abnormalities, and the persistent ureteral dilatation was seen on subsequent ultrasound examinations. Complete blood cell counts, serum chemistries, and urinalyses remained relatively unchanged until 24 mo after diagnosis, at which time azotemia, hypophosphatemia, and hypercalcemia (including elevated ionized calcium) developed. Hydronephrosis of both kidneys and prominent sacculation of the left ureter were noted on ultrasonographic examination. Lethargy, ventral edema, and oral mucosal ulceration acutely developed 30 mo after diagnosis. Although blood urea nitrogen remained elevated, creatinine, total calcium, and ionized calcium returned to within reference ranges at that time. Due to rapid clinical decline and grave prognosis, humane euthanasia was elected. Bilateral ureteral dilatation, dysplasia of the right kidney, and chronic nephritis of the left kidney were identified postmortem.

Bilateral hydronephrosis secondary to endometriosis managed by endoscopic ureteral stent placement in a captive Guinea baboon (Papio papio).

Spontaneous endometriosis is an estrogen-dependent, progressive and painful disease that affects a variety of nonhuman primates, including several species of baboons (Papio sp.). This case documents multimodal management of severe endometriosis in a captive female baboon within a zoological institution. An 18-yr-old, intact female Guinea baboon (Papio papio) was found to have an enlarged uterus. Fifteen months post ovariohysterctomy, scarring associated with endometrial tissue resulted in ureteral strictures, bilateral hydronephrosis, and azotemia. Cystoscopic placement of bilateral ureteral stents with fluoroscopy was performed and resulted in short-term clinical improvement. The animal's condition declined and euthanasia was elected 4 mo after ureteral stent placement. Severe endometriosis with secondary inflammation resulting in bilateral hydroureter and hydronephrosis, as well as concurrent cystitis, ureteritis, and pyelonephritis were confirmed at necropsy. Despite possible complications, ureteral stents can be considered a useful therapeutic option in patients with ureteral disease.

Acute pancreatitis in slender-tailed meerkats (Suricata suricatta).

Four adult, full-sibling slender-tailed meerkats (Suricata suricatta) were diagnosed with acute pancreatitis. The incident case presented with lethargy, anorexia, abdominal guarding, and a cranial abdominal mass. Serum was grossly lipemic, with elevated cholesterol and triglyceride concentrations and increased amylase and lipase activity. An exploratory laparotomy confirmed chylous peritonitis and included excision of a saponified spleno-duodenal mass, a partial pancreatectomy, and a splenectomy. Histopathology revealed severe, multifocal, subacute necrotizing and granulomatous pancreatitis. Within 13 days of the incident case, the second meerkat was identified with essentially identical clinical, surgical, and histologic findings. During subsequent physical examinations of apparently unaffected cohorts (n=12), physical and hematologic findings suggestive of pancreatitis were identified in the two remaining siblings of the first two cases. The definitive cause for these four cases is undetermined; however, common risk factors identified were obesity and hyperlipidemia, a change to a higher-fat diet, and genetic predisposition. To assess its usefulness in the diagnosis of meerkat pancreatitis, serum canine and feline pancreatic lipase immunoreactivity (cPLI and fPLI) concentrations were measured in serum samples (n=61) from two unrelated meerkat populations. Although these assays are highly sensitive and specific for the diagnosis of pancreatitis in domestic carnivores, similar correlation was not apparent for meerkats. In addition, hyperlipidemia was inconsistently present in many meerkats, with no apparent correlation to the development of clinical illness. Based on these observations, sensitive and specific diagnostic tests for pancreatitis in meerkats are currently unavailable.

Colonic obstruction in three captive reticulated giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis reticulata).

Fatal colonic obstructions were diagnosed in three captive, adult, reticulated giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis reticulata). Clinical presentations varied, but all cases displayed decreased activity, anorexia, and considerably decreased fecal production, consistent with intestinal obstruction. Case 1 was diagnosed at necropsy with a phytobezoar obstructing the spiral colon. Case 2 was diagnosed at necropsy with a fecal impaction of the colon. Case 3 was diagnosed during surgery with colonic ileus. Cases 2 and 3 underwent surgical intervention but were markedly compromised by the time of surgery and died during surgery or 24 hr postoperatively. Gastrointestinal obstruction, requiring aggressive supportive care and early surgical intervention, should be considered in giraffe in which anorexia and substantially decreased fecal production are observed. Abdominal exploratory surgery will likely be necessary for diagnosis and treatment. Based on a small number of cases, gastrointestinal obstruction has a poor prognosis in giraffe.