RESUMO
A long-standing conundrum is how mitotic chromosomes can compact, as required for clean separation to daughter cells, while maintaining close parallel alignment of sister chromatids. Pursuit of this question, by high resolution 3D fluorescence imaging of living and fixed mammalian cells, has led to three discoveries. First, we show that the structural axes of separated sister chromatids are linked by evenly spaced "mini-axis" bridges. Second, when chromosomes first emerge as discrete units, at prophase, they are organized as co-oriented sister linear loop arrays emanating from a conjoined axis. We show that this same basic organization persists throughout mitosis, without helical coiling. Third, from prophase onward, chromosomes are deformed into sequential arrays of half-helical segments of alternating handedness (perversions), accompanied by correlated kinks. These arrays fluctuate dynamically over <15 s timescales. Together these discoveries redefine the foundation for thinking about the evolution of mitotic chromosomes as they prepare for anaphase segregation.
Assuntos
Proteínas de Ciclo Celular/genética , Cromossomos/genética , Proteínas de Ligação a DNA/genética , Mitose/genética , Adenosina Trifosfatases/genética , Anáfase/genética , Animais , Proteínas de Ciclo Celular/isolamento & purificação , Cromátides/genética , Proteínas Cromossômicas não Histona , DNA Topoisomerases Tipo II/genética , Proteínas de Ligação a DNA/isolamento & purificação , Imageamento Tridimensional , Mamíferos , Metáfase/genética , Prófase/genéticaRESUMO
Mammalian mitotic chromosome morphogenesis was analyzed by 4D live-cell and snapshot deconvolution fluorescence imaging. Prophase chromosomes, whose organization was previously unknown, are revealed to comprise co-oriented sister linear loop arrays displayed along a single, peripheral, regularly kinked topoisomerase II/cohesin/condensin II axis. Thereafter, rather than smooth, progressive compaction as generally envisioned, progression to metaphase is a discontinuous process involving chromosome expansion as well as compaction. At late prophase, dependent on topoisomerase II and with concomitant cohesin release, chromosomes expand, axes split and straighten, and chromatin loops transit to a radial disposition around now-central axes. Finally, chromosomes globally compact, giving the metaphase state. These patterns are consistent with the hypothesis that the molecular events of chromosome morphogenesis are governed by accumulation and release of chromosome stress, created by chromatin compaction and expansion. Chromosome state could evolve analogously throughout the cell cycle.
Assuntos
Cromossomos de Mamíferos/metabolismo , Metáfase , Mitose , Adenosina Trifosfatases/análise , Animais , Proteínas de Ciclo Celular/análise , Linhagem Celular , Proteínas Cromossômicas não Histona/análise , Cromossomos de Mamíferos/química , DNA Topoisomerases Tipo II/análise , Proteínas de Ligação a DNA/análise , Cervos , Células HeLa , Humanos , Microscopia de Fluorescência , Complexos Multiproteicos/análise , Suínos , CoesinasRESUMO
The nonprocessive kinesin-14 Ncd motor binds to microtubules and hydrolyzes ATP, undergoing a single displacement before releasing the microtubule. A lever-like rotation of the coiled-coil stalk is thought to drive Ncd displacements or steps along microtubules. Crystal structures and cryoelectron microscopy reconstructions imply that stalk rotation is correlated with ADP release and microtubule binding by the motor. Here we report FRET assays showing that the end of the stalk is more than ~9nm from the microtubule when wild-type Ncd binds microtubules without added nucleotide, but the stalk is within ~6nm of the microtubule surface when the microtubule-bound motor binds an ATP analogue, matching the rotated state observed in crystal structures. We propose that the stalk rotation is initiated when the motor binds to microtubules and releases ADP, and is completed when ATP binds.