Artificial intelligence-based immunoprofiling serves as a potentially predictive biomarker of nivolumab treatment for advanced hepatocellular carcinoma.

Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI) have been applied in treating advanced hepatocellular carcinoma (aHCC) patients, but few patients exhibit stable and lasting responses. Moreover, identifying aHCC patients suitable for ICI treatment is still challenged. This study aimed to evaluate whether dissecting peripheral immune cell subsets by Mann-Whitney U test and artificial intelligence (AI) algorithms could serve as predictive biomarkers of nivolumab treatment for aHCC. Disease control group carried significantly increased percentages of PD-L1+ monocytes, PD-L1+ CD8 T cells, PD-L1+ CD8 NKT cells, and decreased percentages of PD-L1+ CD8 NKT cells via Mann-Whitney U test. By recursive feature elimination method, five featured subsets (CD4 NKTreg, PD-1+ CD8 T cells, PD-1+ CD8 NKT cells, PD-L1+ CD8 T cells and PD-L1+ monocytes) were selected for AI training. The featured subsets were highly overlapping with ones identified via Mann-Whitney U test. Trained AI algorithms committed valuable AUC from 0.8417 to 0.875 to significantly separate disease control group from disease progression group, and SHAP value ranking also revealed PD-L1+ monocytes and PD-L1+ CD8 T cells exclusively and significantly contributed to this discrimination. In summary, the current study demonstrated that integrally analyzing immune cell profiling with AI algorithms could serve as predictive biomarkers of ICI treatment.

Diterpene promptly executes a non-canonical autophagic cell death in doxorubicin-resistant lung cancer.

16-hydroxycleroda-3,13-dien-15,16-olide (HCD) has antitumor activity reported in numerous types of cancers. However, the efficacy of HCD treatment in non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cells and doxorubicin-resistant (Dox-R)-NSCLC cells remains to be unraveled. The underlying anti-cancer mechanism of HCD on Dox-R and Dox-sensitive (Dox-S) of A549 cells was also investigated. Cytotoxicity of HCD against two cell lines (Dox-S and Dox-R) were determined via MTT assay, flow cytometry, and Western blot. A further examination of its anti-cancer efficacy was performed in A549-bearing xenograft mice via orthotopic intratrachea (IT) inoculation, which showed that HCD could arrest both Dox-S and Dox-R cells at G2/M phase without altering the sub-G1 cycle along with increasing of cleaved-PARP. HCD downregulated the mTOR/Akt/PI3K-p85 and PI3K-ClassIII/Beclin-1 signals and upregulated p62/LC3-I/II expressions to further confirm that the cell autophagy of NSCLC cells after being HCD-induced. Morphological observations of mouse lung sections illustrated that fewer cancer cells accumulated close to the trachea while less neoplastic activities were found in HCD orthotopic treated mice without liver, kidney, and spleen toxicity. Lastly, Dox, HCD, and target therapy medicines of EGFR and ALK were nicely docked with EGFR, ALK, and mTOR. Conclusively, HCD was demonstrated the chemotherapeutic potential regardless of Dox-R and Dox-S cells, suggesting natural autophagic inducer HCD provides a promising lead compound for new drug discovery and development of lung cancer therapies.

TCF7L1 regulates cytokine response and neuroendocrine differentiation of prostate cancer.

Neuroendocrine differentiation (NED) is associated with WNT signaling activation and can be significantly observed after failure of androgen-deprivation therapy (ADT) for prostatic adenocarcinomas. Cytokine signaling is stimulated in NED prostate cancer; however, how ADT-upregulated WNT signaling promotes activation of cytokine signaling and contributes to NED of prostate cancer is poorly understood. In this study, we identified ADT-mediated upregulation of transcription factor 7 like 1 (TCF7L1), which increases the cytokine response and enhances NED of prostate cancer through interleukin (IL)-8/C-X-C motif chemokine receptor type 2 (CXCR2) signaling activation. ADT induced the secretion of WNT4 which upon engagement of TCF7L1 in prostate cancer cells, enhanced IL-8 and CXCR2 expressions. TCF7L1 directly binds to the regulatory sequence region of IL-8 and CXCR2 through WNT4 activation, thus upregulating IL-8/CXCR2 signaling-driven NED and cell motility. Analysis of prostate tissue samples collected from small-cell neuroendocrine prostate cancer (SCPC) and castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) tumors showed an increased intensity of nuclear TCF7L1 associated with CXCR2. Our results suggest that induction of WNT4/TCF7L1 results in increased NED and malignancy in prostate cancer that is linked to dysregulation of androgen receptor signaling and activation of the IL-8/CXCR2 pathway.

Interplay of Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor and Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription 3 in Prostate Cancer: Beyond Androgen Receptor Transactivation.

Prostate cancer (PCa) is one of the most common cancers in the world and causes thousands of deaths every year. Conventional therapy for PCa includes surgery and androgen deprivation therapy (ADT). However, about 10-20% of all PCa cases relapse; there is also the further development of castration resistant adenocarcinoma (CRPC-Adeno) or neuroendocrine (NE) PCa (CRPC-NE). Due to their androgen-insensitive properties, both CRPC-Adeno and CRPC-NE have limited therapeutic options. Accordingly, this study reveals the inductive mechanisms of CRPC (for both CRPC-Adeno and CRPC-NE) and fulfils an urgent need for the treatment of PCa patients. Although previous studies have illustrated the emerging roles of epidermal growth factor receptors (EGFR), signal transducer, and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) signaling in the development of CRPC, the regulatory mechanisms of this interaction between EGFR and STAT3 is still unclear. Our recent studies have shown that crosstalk between EGFR and STAT3 is critical for NE differentiation of PCa. In this review, we have collected recent findings with regard to the involvement of EGFR and STAT3 in malignancy progression and discussed their interactions during the development of therapeutic resistance for PCa.

Nerve growth factor interacts with CHRM4 and promotes neuroendocrine differentiation of prostate cancer and castration resistance.

Nerve growth factor (NGF) contributes to the progression of malignancy. However, the functional role and regulatory mechanisms of NGF in the development of neuroendocrine prostate cancer (NEPC) are unclear. Here, we show that an androgen-deprivation therapy (ADT)-stimulated transcription factor, ZBTB46, upregulated NGF via ZBTB46 mediated-transcriptional activation of NGF. NGF regulates NEPC differentiation by physically interacting with a G-protein-coupled receptor, cholinergic receptor muscarinic 4 (CHRM4), after ADT. Pharmacologic NGF blockade and NGF knockdown markedly inhibited CHRM4-mediated NEPC differentiation and AKT-MYCN signaling activation. CHRM4 stimulation was associated with ADT resistance and was significantly correlated with increased NGF in high-grade and small-cell neuroendocrine prostate cancer (SCNC) patient samples. Our results reveal a role of the NGF in the development of NEPC that is linked to ZBTB46 upregulation and CHRM4 accumulation. Our study provides evidence that the NGF-CHRM4 axis has potential to be considered as a therapeutic target to impair NEPC progression.

EGFR-upregulated LIFR promotes SUCLG2-dependent castration resistance and neuroendocrine differentiation of prostate cancer.

Neuroendocrine (NE) differentiation is a well-recognized phenotypic change of prostate cancer after androgen deprivation therapy (ADT), and it ultimately develops into an aggressive subset of this disease. However, the contribution of signaling pathways that lead to metabolic disorders and NE differentiation of prostate cancer remains unclear. In this study, we identified that ADT induced upregulation of the succinate-CoA ligase GDP-forming beta subunit (SUCLG2), which regulates succinate metabolism and NE differentiation of prostate cancer. We demonstrated a connection that upregulation of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR)-leukemia inhibitory factor receptor (LIFR) signaling induced SUCLG2 expression in prostate cancer cells. The LIFR is upregulated by nuclear EGFR, which acts as a transcriptional regulator, directly binds to the LIFR promoter, and drives NE differentiation and glycolysis of prostate cancer. LIFR upregulation is associated with SUCLG2, which increased succinate synthesis and enzymatic activities of mitochondrial nucleoside diphosphate kinase (NDPK) in prostate cancer cells. Knockdown of SUCLG2 suppressed NE differentiation in cultured cells and reduced prostate tumor growth in a xenograft model. Analysis of prostate tissue samples showed increased intensity of nuclear EGFR associated with the LIFR and SUCLG2 in castration-resistant prostate cancer tumors. Our study provides a mechanism whereby ADT upregulates EGFR-LIFR signaling that activates SUCLG2, which subsequently stimulates the metabolic changes associated with NE differentiation and aggressive prostate cancer phenotype.

Doxorubicin metabolism moderately attributes to putative toxicity in prodigiosin/doxorubicin synergism in vitro cells.

Doxorubicin (Dox) is a widely neoplasm chemotherapeutic drug with high incidences of cardiotoxicity. Prodigiosin (PG), a red bacterial pigment from Serratia marcescens, has been demonstrated to potentiate Dox's cytotoxicity against oral squamous cell carcinoma cells through elevating Dox influx and identified as a Dox enhancer via PG-induced autophagy; however, toxicity of normal cell remains unclear. This study is conducted to evaluate putative cytotoxicity features of PG/Dox synergism in the liver, kidney, and heart cells and further elucidate whether PG augmented Dox's effect via modulating Dox metabolism in normal cells. Murine hepatocytes FL83B, cardio-myoblast h9c2, and human kidney epithelial cells HK-2 were sequentially treated with PG and Dox by measuring cell viability, cell death characteristics, oxidative stress, Dox flux, and Dox metabolism. PG could slightly significant increase Dox cytotoxicity in all tested normal cells whose toxic alteration was less than that of oral squamous carcinoma cells. The augmentation of Dox cytotoxicity might be attributed to the increase of Dox-mediated ROS accumulation that might cause slight reduction of Dox influx and reduction of Dox metabolism. It was noteworthy to notice that sustained cytotoxicity appeared in normal cells after PG and Dox were removed. Taken together, moderately metabolic reduction of Dox might be ascribed to the mechanism of increase Dox cytotoxicity in PG-induced normal cells; nevertheless, the determination of PG/Dox dose with sustained cytotoxicity in normal cells needs to be comprehensively considered.

Ras and Wnt Interaction Contribute in Prostate Cancer Bone Metastasis.

Prostate cancer (PCa) is one of the most prevalent and malignant cancer types in men, which causes more than three-hundred thousand cancer death each year. At late stage of PCa progression, bone marrow is the most often metastatic site that constitutes almost 70% of metastatic cases of the PCa population. However, the characteristic for the osteo-philic property of PCa is still puzzling. Recent studies reported that the Wnt and Ras signaling pathways are pivotal in bone metastasis and that take parts in different cytological changes, but their crosstalk is not well studied. In this review, we focused on interactions between the Wnt and Ras signaling pathways during each stage of bone metastasis and present the fate of those interactions. This review contributes insights that can guide other researchers by unveiling more details with regard to bone metastasis and might also help in finding potential therapeutic regimens for preventing PCa bone metastasis.

The production and bioactivity of prodigiosin: quo vadis?

Prodigiosin (PG), a red tripyrrole pigment, belongs to a member of the prodiginine family and is normally secreted by various sources including Serratia marcescens and other Gram-negative bacteria. The studies of PG have received innovative devotion as a result of reported antimicrobial, larvicidal and anti-nematoid immunomodulation and antitumor properties, owing to its antibiotic and cytotoxic activities. This review provides a comprehensive summary of research undertaken toward the isolation and structural elucidation of the prodiginine family of natural products. Additionally, the current evidence-based understanding of the biological activities and medicinal potential of PG is employed to determine the efficacy, with some reports of information related to pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics and toxicology.

Natural compounds as potential adjuvants to cancer therapy: Preclinical evidence.

Traditional chemotherapy is being considered due to hindrances caused by systemic toxicity. Currently, the administration of multiple chemotherapeutic drugs with different biochemical/molecular targets, known as combination chemotherapy, has attained numerous benefits like efficacy enhancement and amelioration of adverse effects that has been broadly applied to various cancer types. Additionally, seeking natural-based alternatives with less toxicity has become more important. Experimental evidence suggests that herbal extracts such as Solanum nigrum and Claviceps purpurea and isolated herbal compounds (e.g., curcumin, resveratrol, and matairesinol) combined with antitumoral drugs have the potential to attenuate resistance against cancer therapy and to exert chemoprotective actions. Plant products are not free of risks: Herb adverse effects, including herb-drug interactions, should be carefully considered. LINKED ARTICLES: This article is part of a themed section on The Pharmacology of Nutraceuticals. To view the other articles in this section visit http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bph.v177.6/issuetoc.

Clerodane Diterpene Ameliorates Inflammatory Bowel Disease and Potentiates Cell Apoptosis of Colorectal Cancer.

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is general term for ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease, which is chronic intestinal and colorectal inflammation caused by microbial infiltration or immunocyte attack. IBD is not curable, and is highly susceptible to develop into colorectal cancer. Finding agents to alleviate these symptoms, as well as any progression of IBD, is a critical effort. This study evaluates the anti-inflammation and anti-tumor activity of 16-hydroxycleroda-3,13-dien-15,16-olide (HCD) in in vivo and in vitro assays. The result of an IBD mouse model induced using intraperitoneal chemical azoxymethane (AOM)/dextran sodium sulfate (DSS) injection showed that intraperitoneal HCD adminstration could ameliorate the inflammatory symptoms of IBD mice. In the in vitro assay, cytotoxic characteristics and retained signaling pathways of HCD treatment were analyzed by MTT assay, cell cycle analysis, and Western blotting. From cell viability determination, the IC50 of HCD in Caco-2 was significantly lower in 2.30 µM at 48 h when compared to 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) (66.79 µM). By cell cycle and Western blotting analysis, the cell death characteristics of HCD treatment in Caco-2 exhibited the involvement of extrinsic and intrinsic pathways in cell death, for which intrinsic apoptosis was predominantly activated via the reduction in growth factor signaling. These potential treatments against colon cancer demonstrate that HCD could provide a promising adjuvant as an alternative medicine in combating colorectal cancer and IBD.

Natural phenolic compounds potentiate hypoglycemia via inhibition of Dipeptidyl peptidase IV.

Dipeptidyl peptidase IV (DPP IV) is a surface glycoprotein that can degrade glucagon like pepetide-1 (GLP-1) by decreasing blood sugar. Herbal medicines for diabetic therapy are widely used with acceptable efficacy but unsatisfied in advances. DPP IV was chosen as a template to employ molecular docking via Discovery Studio to search for natural phenolic compounds whether they have the inhibitory function of DPP IV. Then, docking candidates were validated and further performed signal pathway via Caco-2, C2C12, and AR42J cells. Lastly, a diet-induced diabetes in mice were applied to examine the efficacy and toxicity of hit natural phenolic products in long-term use (in vivo). After screening, curcumin, syringic acid, and resveratrol were found in high affinity with DPP IV enzymes. In enzymatic tests, curcumin and resveratrol showed potential inhibition of DPP IV. In vitro assays, curcumin inhibited of DPP IV activity in Caco-2 cells and ERK phosphorylation in C2C12 cells. Additionally, curcumin attenuated blood sugar in S961-treated C57BL/6 mice and in diet-induced diabetic ICR mice and long-term regulate HbA1c in diabetic mice. Curcumin targeted to DPP IV for reducing blood glucose, it possesses potential and alternative substitution of synthetic clinical drugs for the medication of diabetes.

Polyalthia Clerodane Diterpene Potentiates Hypoglycemia via Inhibition of Dipeptidyl Peptidase 4.

Serine protease dipeptidyl peptidase 4 (DPP-4) is involved in self/non-self-recognition and insulin sensitivity. DPP-4 inhibitors are conventional choices for diabetic treatment; however, side effects such as headache, bronchus infection, and nasopharyngitis might affect the daily lives of diabetic patients. Notably, natural compounds are believed to have a similar efficacy with lower adverse effects. This study aimed to validate the DPP-4 inhibitory activity of clerodane diterpene 16-hydroxycleroda-3,13-dien-15,16-olide (HCD) from Polyalthia longifolia, rutin, quercetin, and berberine, previously selected through molecular docking. The inhibitory potency of natural DPP-4 candidates was further determined by enzymatic, in vitro Caco-2, and ERK/PKA activation in myocyte and pancreatic cells. The hypoglycemic efficacy of the natural compounds was consecutively analyzed by single-dose and multiple-dose administration in diet-induced obese diabetic mice. All the natural-compounds could directly inhibit DPP-4 activity in enzymatic assay and Caco-2 inhibition assay, and HCD showed the highest inhibition of the compounds. HCD down-regulated LPS-induced ERK phosphorylation in myocyte but blocked GLP-1 induced PKA expression. For in vivo tests, HCD showed hypoglycemic efficacy only in single-dose administration. After 28-days administration, HCD exhibited hypolipidemic and hepatoprotective efficacy. These results revealed that HCD performed potential antidiabetic activity via inhibition of single-dose and long-term administrations, and could be a new prospective anti-diabetic drug candidate.

FAK and S6K1 Inhibitor, Neferine, Dually Induces Autophagy and Apoptosis in Human Neuroblastoma Cells.

Human neuroblastoma cancer is the most typical extracranial solid tumor. Yet, new remedial treatment therapies are demanded to overcome its sluggish survival rate. Neferine, isolated from the lotus embryos, inhibits the proliferation of various cancer cells. This study aimed to evaluate the anti-cancer activity of neferine in IMR32 human neuroblastoma cells and to expose the concealable molecular mechanisms. IMR32 cells were treated with different concentrations of neferine, followed by 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay to assess cell viability. In an effort to determine the molecular mechanisms in neferine-incubated IMR32 cells, cell cycle arrest, cell migration, and focal adhesion kinase (FAK), the 70-kDa ribosomal S6 kinase 1 (S6K1), poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP), caspase-3, Beclin-1, and microtubule-associated protein 1A/1B-light chain 3 (LC3) protein expressions were investigated. Neferine strongly disrupted the neuroblastoma cell growth via induction of G2/M phase arrest. Furthermore, neferine provoked autophagy and apoptosis in IMR32 cells, confirmed by p-FAK, and p-S6K1 reduction, LC3-II accumulation, Beclin-1 overexpression, and cleaved caspase-3/PARP improvement. Finally, neferine markedly retarded cell migration of neuroblastoma cancer cells. As a result, our findings for the first time showed an explicit anti-cancer effect of neferine in IMR32 cells, suggesting that neferine might be a potential candidate against human neuroblastoma cells to improve clinical outcomes with further in vivo investigation.

Prodigiosin-Emerged PI3K/Beclin-1-Independent Pathway Elicits Autophagic Cell Death in Doxorubicin-Sensitive and -Resistant Lung Cancer.

Prodigiosin (PG) belongs to a family of prodiginines isolated from gram-negative bacteria. It is a water insoluble red pigment and a potent proapoptotic compound. This study elucidates the anti-tumor activity and underlying mechanism of PG in doxorubicin-sensitive (Dox-S) and doxorubicin-resistant (Dox-R) lung cancer cells. The cytotoxicity and cell death characteristics of PG in two cells were measured by MTT assay, cell cycle analysis, and apoptosis/autophagic marker analysis. Then, the potential mechanism of PG-induced cell death was evaluated through the phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate 3-kinase-p85/Protein kinase B /mammalian target of rapamycin (PI3K-p85/Akt/mTOR) and Beclin-1/phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate 3-kinase-Class III (Beclin-1/PI3K-Class III) signaling. Finally, in vivo efficacy was examined by intratracheal inoculation and treatment. There was similar cytotoxicity with PG in both Dox-S and Dox-R cells, where the half maximal inhibitory concentrations (IC50) were all in 10 µM. Based on a non-significant increase in the sub-G1 phase with an increase of microtubule-associated proteins 1A/1B light chain 3B-phosphatidylethanolamine conjugate (LC3-II), the cell death of both cells was categorized to achieve autophagy. Interestingly, an increase in cleaved-poly ADP ribose polymerase (cleaved-PARP) also showed the existence of an apoptosis-sensitive subpopulation. In both Dox-S and Dox-R cells, PI3K-p85/Akt/mTOR signaling pathways were reduced, which inhibited autophagy initiation. However, Beclin-1/PI3K-Class III downregulation implicated non-canonical autophagy pathways were involved in PG-induced autophagy. At completion of the PG regimen, tumors accumulated in the mice trachea and were attenuated by PG treatment, which indicated the efficacy of PG for both Dox-S and Dox-R lung cancer. All the above results concluded that PG is a potential chemotherapeutic agent for lung cancer regimens regardless of doxorubicin resistance.

PG-Priming Enhances Doxorubicin Influx to Trigger Necrotic and Autophagic Cell Death in Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma.

Synergistic effects between natural compounds and chemotherapy drugs are believed to have fewer side effects with equivalent efficacy. However, the synergistic potential of prodigiosin (PG) with doxorubicin (Dox) chemotherapy is still unknown. This study explores the synergistic mechanism of PG and Dox against oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) cells. Three OSCC cell lines were treated with different PG/Dox combinatory schemes for cytotoxicity tests and were further investigated for cell death characteristics by cell cycle flow cytometry and autophagy/apoptosis marker labelling. When OSCC cells were pretreated with PG, the cytotoxicity of the subsequent Dox-treatment was 30% higher than Dox alone. The cytotoxic efficacy of PG-pretreated was found better than those of PG plus Dox co-treatment and Dox-pretreatment. Increase of Sub-G1 phase and caspase-3/LC-3 levels without poly (ADP-ribose) polymeras (PARP) elevation indicated both autophagy and necrosis occurred in OSCC cells. Dox flux after PG-priming was further evaluated by rhodamine-123 accumulation and Dox transporters analysis to elucidate the PG-priming effect. PG-priming autophagy enhanced Dox accumulation according to the increase of rhodamine-123 accumulation without the alterations of Dox transporters. Additionally, the cause of PG-triggered autophagy was determined by co-treatment with endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress or AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) inhibitor. PG-induced autophagy was not related to nutrient deprivation and ER stress was proved by co-treatment with specific inhibitor. Taken together, PG-priming autophagy could sensitize OSCC cells by promoting Dox influx without regulation of Dox transporter. The PG-priming might be a promising adjuvant approach for the chemotherapy of OSCC.

The autophagic inhibition oral squamous cell carcinoma cancer growth of 16-hydroxy-cleroda-3,14-dine-15,16-olide.

16-hydroxycleroda-3, 13-dine-15, 16-olide (HCD) isolated from Polyalthia longifolia possesses numerous biological activities. Previous studies have reported that HCD can block phosphorylation activity of cancer cells to inhibit tumor cell growth, but the anti-tumor activity in oral squamous cell carcinoma is unrevealed. This study investigates the inhibiting effect of HCD on human OSCC cell growth; thereby, developing a new oral cancer drug. In in vitro cultured human OSCC cells (OECM1 and SAS) were employed to test the inhibitory growth of HCD via cell cytotoxic effect using 3-(4, 5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2, 5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay, Western blotting, and further determining of the inhibitory efficacy of tumor growth by a xenograft tumor on BALB/c male nude mice (in vivo test). Under various concentrations of HCD and time course treatments were shown to effectively cause cell death and cell-cycle arrest in OECM1 and SAS cells, which was confirmed via a clinical drug (cisplatin) as a positive control. In addition, HCD induced the autophagic cell death in OECM1 and SAS cells by LC3-mediated LC3-I/LC3-II/p62 pathway at the in vitro level. An in vivo assay indicated that HCD could treat oral cancer by deferring tumor growth. These findings provide a favorable assessment for further elucidating the role of HCD that targets autophagic cell death pathways as a potential agent for cancer therapy.

Natural Compounds from Herbs that can Potentially Execute as Autophagy Inducers for Cancer Therapy.

Accumulated evidence indicates that autophagy is a response of cancer cells to various anti-cancer therapies. Autophagy is designated as programmed cell death type II, and is characterized by the formation of autophagic vacuoles in the cytoplasm. Numerous herbs, including Chinese herbs, have been applied to cancer treatments as complementary and alternative medicines, supplements, or nutraceuticals to dampen the side or adverse effects of chemotherapy drugs. Moreover, the tumor suppressive actions of herbs and natural products induced autophagy that may lead to cell senescence, increase apoptosis-independent cell death or complement apoptotic processes. Hereby, the underlying mechanisms of natural autophagy inducers are cautiously reviewed in this article. Additionally, three natural compounds-curcumin, 16-hydroxycleroda-3,13-dien-15,16-olide, and prodigiosin-are presented as candidates for autophagy inducers that can trigger cell death in a supplement or alternative medicine for cancer therapy. Despite recent advancements in therapeutic drugs or agents of natural products in several cancers, it warrants further investigation in preclinical and clinical studies.

Inhibitory Growth of Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma Cancer via Bacterial Prodigiosin.

Chemotherapy drugs for oral cancers always cause side effects and adverse effects. Currently natural sources and herbs are being searched for treated human oral squamous carcinoma cells (OSCC) in an effort to alleviate the causations of agents in oral cancers chemotherapy. This study investigates the effect of prodigiosin (PG), an alkaloid and natural red pigment as a secondary metabolite of Serratia marcescens, to inhibit human oral squamous carcinoma cell growth; thereby, developing a new drug for the treatment of oral cancer. In vitro cultured human OSCC models (OECM1 and SAS cell lines) were used to test the inhibitory growth of PG via cell cytotoxic effects (MTT assay), cell cycle analysis, and Western blotting. PG under various concentrations and time courses were shown to effectively cause cell death and cell-cycle arrest in OECM1 and SAS cells. Additionally, PG induced autophagic cell death in OECM1 and SAS cells by LC3-mediated P62/LC3-I/LC3-II pathway at the in vitro level. These findings elucidate the role of PG, which may target the autophagic cell death pathways as a potential agent in cancer therapeutics.