El endotelio sano y su disfunción en el riesgo cardiovascular / Healthy Endothelium and its Dysfunction in Cardiovascular Risk

Resumen El endotelio es una monocapa formada por células aplanadas llamadas w, que revisten la parte más interna del corazón, los vasos sanguíneos y los linfáticos. Es considerado un órgano que tiene una función de barrera, pero además se encarga de regular la permeabilidad y tono vascular, hemostasia, inflamación y angiogénesis. Esta revisión se centra sobre todo en las generalidades del endotelio vascular sano y su disfunción. Se analizan los conceptos de activación y disfunción, en donde la activación se considera como un proceso autolimitado, indispensable para la hemostasia y la inflamación. La disfunción endotelial, en cambio, es un proceso patológico, de mayor duración y que se presenta cuando el endotelio ya no puede autorregularse y cambia a un fenotipo proinflamatorio y protrombótico permanente. Esta disfunción es el primer cambio que lleva a la ateroesclerosis y al aumento del riesgo cardiovascular, por esta razón se revisan los principales biomarcadores de disfunción endotelial y riesgo cardiovascular. A medida que se avance en el conocimiento básico del endotelio y su disfunción, será posible diseñar nuevas medidas preventivas o terapéuticas que puedan disminuir dicho riesgo.

Abstract The endothelium is a monolayer of flatten cells named endothelial cells that form the inner layer of the heart, blood, and lymphatic vessels. Its function is not just as a barrier, but it is a regulator of vascular permeability and tone, hemostasis, inflammation, and angiogenesis. This review is about the general aspects of vascular endothelium and endothelial dysfunction that leads to increased vascular risk. Activation and dysfunction are discussed, considering the endothelial activation as a self-limiting process, necessary to promote inflammation and hemostasis. Endothelial dysfunction is a pathological process in which the endothelium loses its ability for self-regulation and acquires a prothrombotic and proinflammation phenotype. Endothelial dysfunction is the initial step for atherosclerosis and increased cardiovascular risk, so the main biomarkers of endothelial dysfunction are reviewed. As basic knowledge about endothelium increases, preventive or therapeutic measures can be designed as treatment or prevention the risk of its dysfunction.

Sex differences in vanadium inhalation effects in non-ciliated bronchiolar cells.

The non-ciliated bronchiolar cell (NCBC) is responsible for the defense of the lung and responds to negative stimuli such as exposure to toxic pro-oxidant substances, which triggers the hyperproduction and hypersecretion of mucins and CC16 protein. The literature demonstrates that physiological and pathological responses in the lung can be influenced by the organism's sex. The objective of this report was to evaluate response differences to vanadium (V) inhalation in male and female CD-1 mice. Mice were exposed to V for four weeks. Hyperplasia of bronchiolar epithelium, small inflammatory foci and sloughing of the NCBC were observed, without changes between sexes and throughout the exposure time. Mucosecretory metaplasia was found in both males and females, however it was more drastic in males. The expression of CC16 increased in both sexes. This study demonstrated a different susceptibility between male and female mice exposed to V inhalation regarding mucosecretory metaplasia.

Bioactive Peptides against Human Apicomplexan Parasites.

Apicomplexan parasites are the causal agents of different medically important diseases, such as toxoplasmosis, cryptosporidiosis, and malaria. Toxoplasmosis is considered a neglected parasitosis, even though it can cause severe cerebral complications and death in immunocompromised patients, including children and pregnant women. Drugs against Toxoplasma gondii, the etiological agent of toxoplasmosis, are highly toxic and lack efficacy in eradicating tissue cysts, promoting the establishment of latent infection and acute relapsing disease. Cryptosporidiosis has been recognized as the most frequent waterborne parasitosis in US outbreaks; anti-cryptosporidium drug discovery still faces a major obstacle: drugs that can act on the epicellular parasite. Severe malaria is most commonly caused by the progression of infection with Plasmodium falciparum. In recent years, great progress has been made in the field of antimalarial drugs and vaccines, although the resistance of P. falciparum to artemisinin has recently gained a foothold in Africa. As seen, the search for new drugs against these parasites remains a challenge. Peptide-based drugs seem to be attractive alternative therapeutic agents recently recognized by the pharmaceutical industry, as they can kill different infectious agents and modulate the immune response. A review of the experimental effects of bioactive peptides on these parasites follows, along with comments. In addition, some biological and metabolomic generalities of the parasites are reviewed to elucidate peptide mechanisms of action on Apicomplexan targets.

Exposing the Hepatotoxicity of Medicinal Plants: A Review of Copalchi Stem Bark (Hintonia latiflora) / Exponiendo la hepatotoxicidad de las plantas medicinales: una revisión de palo amargo (Hintonia latiflora)

Resumen Se estima que el 80% de la población mundial utiliza diversas plantas medicinales para el tratamiento o control de diversas enfermedades, ya sean agudas o crónicas, debido a su accesibilidad y bajo costo, observándose en los últimos años un aumento en el consumo sin una observación médica adecuada. México es considerado como el segundo país más importante del mundo en cuanto al conocimiento de la medicina tradicional, solo después de china. El uso de las plantas medicinales se ha reportado desde tiempos prehispánicos como una opción terapéutica, sin embargo, el único enfoque que se tiene es la parte curativa y no se ha reflexionado en que las plantas poseen metabolitos secundarios (compuestos químicos producidos por las plantas con actividad biológica en los seres vivos) que, además de tener efectos terapéuticos poseen efectos tóxicos en las personas que las consumen, observándose en algunos casos efectos reversibles después de suspender su consumo. El copalchi o palo amargo es una planta medicinal que proviene de la corteza del árbol de Hintonia latiflora (sin. Coutarea latiflora), la cual ha sido utilizada principalmente como tratamiento alternativo para pacientes con diabetes tipo 2, ya que se ha demostrado que tiene efecto hipoglucemiante. Sin embargo, se han reportado casos de hepatotoxicidad aguda con un incremento en las transaminasas hepáticas (ALT y AST) por el consumo continuo de dicha corteza, no obstante el procesamiento de las plantas medicinales utilizando medios físicos (calentar o hervir) puede alterar la actividad farmacológica de los constituyentes orgánicos, los cuales pueden verse también afectados en su concentración dependiendo de los factores ambientales de cultivo, localización del suelo, humedad y temperatura ambiental, así como la temporada de cosecha (tallos, hojas, flores, raíces, semillas). El consumo de esta planta medicinal es por medio de infusiones calientes o en cápsulas con extracto.

Abstract Approximately 80% of the world's population uses various medicinal plants for the treatment or control of various diseases, whether acute or chronic, due to their accessibility and low cost, observing in recent years an increase in consumption without proper medical observation. Mexico is considered the second most important country in the world in terms of traditional medicine knowledge, only after China. The use of medicinal plants has been reported since pre-Hispanic times as a therapeutic option; however, the only focus is on the curative part and it has not been considered that plants have secondary metabolites (chemical compounds produced by plants with biological activity in living beings) that, besides having therapeutic effects, have toxic effects in people who consume them, and in some cases reversible effects are observed after suspending their consumption. Copalchi or palo amargo is a medicinal plant obtained from the bark of the Hintonia latiflora tree (syn. Coutarea latiflora), which has been used mainly as an alternative treatment for patients with type 2 diabetes, since it has been shown to have a hypoglycemic effect. However, cases of acute hepatotoxicity have been reported with an increase in hepatic transaminases (ALT and AST) by the continuous consumption of this bark. However, the processing of medicinal plants using physical means (heating or boiling) can alter the pharmacological activity of the organic constituents, which can also be affected in their concentration depending on the environmental factors of cultivation, soil location, humidity, and environmental temperature, as well as the harvesting season (stems, leaves, flowers, roots, seeds). The consumption of this medicinal plant is by means of hot infusions or in capsules with extract.

A brief review of the biology of megakaryocytes and platelets and their role in thrombosis associated with particulate air pollution.

Air pollution is a worldwide public health issue and it is associated with millions of premature deaths due to cancer, thrombosis, and pulmonary and cardiovascular diseases. Thrombosis is the excessive clotting that blocks a blood vessel, and its etiology is multifactorial. In recent years, growing evidence has linked air pollution, especially particulate matter (PM) and metals, to the development of thrombosis. PM and metals induce lung and systemic inflammation and oxidative stress that are frequent mechanisms in thrombosis. Platelets are important effectors of physiological hemostasis and pathological thrombosis. They are responsible for the formation of the initial plug and are important in the cellular model of coagulation. Therefore, any changes in their morphology or function or an increase in activation could be extremely relevant in thrombosis. Megakaryocytes (MKs) in the bone marrow and in the lungs are the precursor cells of platelets, and the latter is the first organ injured by air pollution. There is substantial evidence of the effect that PM and metals have on platelets, but there is almost no research about the effect of PM and metals on MKs. It is very likely that the alterations produced by air pollution originate in these cells. In this article, we review the biology of MKs and platelets and their role in particulate air pollution-related thrombosis to emphasize the need for further research in this field.

Fisiología de la hemostasia y su alteración por la coagulopatía en COVID-19 / Physiology of Hemostasis and its Alteration by Coagulopathy in COVID-19

Resumen La pandemia de la enfermedad COVID-19, ocasionada por el virus Sars-CoV-2, ha preocupado al personal de salud, entre otras cosas, por la alta incidencia de coagulopatía asociada a aumento en la mortalidad que se presenta en los pacientes. La coagulopatía es principalmente trombótica, inicialmente en pulmón y posteriormente sistémica, macro y microvascular, asociada al daño endotelial, inflamación, trampas extracelulares de neutrófilos (NETs), activación de macrófagos y tormenta de citocinas que perpetúan el círculo vicioso de trombosis e inflamación. Se ha reportado el aumento de factores protrombóticos en los pacientes: aumento del factor tisular, factor de Von Willebrand, fibrinógeno, factor VIII, entre otros y, además, la disminución de algunos anticoagulantes naturales como la proteína S y la antitrombina. Además, se menciona la insuficiencia de la fibrinólisis, asociada con el aumento del PAI-1 (inhibidor del activador tisular de plasminógeno). Durante la enfermedad, hay depósito de fibrina intraalveolar que también es degradada. Tanto la fibrinólisis del trombo, como la degradación de fibrina intraalveolar, hacen que aumenten los dímeros D y, por esta razón, este es uno de los mejores predictores de la severidad de la enfermedad COVID-19. En este artículo se revisa la fisiología de la hemostasia, la tromboinflamación secundaria a la infección por el virus Sars-Cov-2, la evidencia clínica y lo que se sabe de la fisiopatología de la coagulopatía en COVID-19, para tratar de entenderla desde la mirada de la ciencia básica.

Abstract COVID-19 global pandemic caused by Sars-CoV-2 virus, has worried to health care providers due to the high mortality rate related to coagulopathy in many patients. COVID-19 coagulopathy is mainly thrombotic, first locally in lungs but later on it becomes micro and macrovascular systemic coagulopathy. It has been associated to endothelial damage, inflammation, neutrophil-extracellular traps, monocyte and macrophage activation, cytokines storm that induce a vicious cycle of thrombosis and inflammation. The increased levels of prothrombotic factors as tissue factor, Von Willebrand factor, fibrinogen, VIII factor and the decreased levels of antithrombotic factos, such as: antithrombin and Protein S have been reported in COVID-19 patients. Insufficiency of fibrinolysis because of the increased levels of PAI-1 (plasminogen activator inhibitor 1) have been reported also. During this disease there are intraalveolar fibrin deposits that needs to be degraded. Fibrinolysis of thrombus and fibrin intraalveolar degradation are responsible for the high increase of D-dimers levels that are an important predictor of severity of the disease. In this report, the physiology of hemostasis, thromboinflamation secondary to Sars-CoV-2 infection are reviewed, as well as the clinical evidence and the physiopathology of COVID-19 coagulopathy from the basic sciences point of view.

Evaluation of the genotoxicity, cytotoxicity and antimalarial effect of sodium metavanadate po in a Plasmodium yoelii yoelii infected murine model.

Malaria is a parasitic disease with the highest morbidity and mortality worldwide and antimalarial drug resistance has increased in last two decades. Chloroquine and artemisinin which were usedfor the treatment of malaria are also reported with resistances. Recently, some metallic compounds of ruthenium and iridium have been used as possible therapeutic agents against other parasites such as Leishmania and Trypanosoma cruzi. Organic and inorganic compounds of vanadium such as metavanadate, have been used lately because its therapeutic properties as antineoplastic and hypoglycemic agents. In this study we evaluated the genotoxicity and cytotoxicity of metavanadate per os and its working dose, as a previous step for the future use of metavanadate as anti-parasitic agent in a Plasmodium yoelii yoelii malarial lethal model. Our findings suggest that 10 mg/kg is a safe dose that decreases parasitemia and increases the survival of the Plasmodium yoelii yoelii infected mice with no evidence of genotoxicity, cytotoxicity with the dose selected.

The role of the non-ciliated bronchiolar cell in tolerance to inhaled vanadium of the bronchiolar epithelium.

The Non-Ciliated Bronchiolar Cell (NCBC) is responsible for the defense and maintenance of the bronchiolar epithelium. Several cellular defense mechanisms have been associated with an increase in the secretion of CC16 and changes in the phenotype of the cell; these mechanisms could be linked to tolerance to the damage due to exposure to inhaled Particulate Matter (PM) of the epithelium. These defense mechanisms have not been sufficiently explored. In this article, we studied the response of the NCBC to inhaled vanadium, an element which adheres to PM. This response was measured by the changes in the phenotype of the NCBC and the secretion of CC16 in a mouse model. Mice were exposed in two phases to different vanadium concentrations; 1.27 mg/m³ in the first phase and 2.56 mg/m³ in the second phase. Mice were sacrificed on the 2nd, 4th, 5th, 6th and 8th weeks. In the second phase, we observed the following: sloughing of the NCBC, hyperplasia and small inflammatory foci remained without changes and that the expression of CC16 was higher in this phase than in phase I. We also observed a change in the phenotype with a slow decrease in both phases. The increase in the secretion of CC16 and the phenotype reversion could be due to the anti-inflammatory activity of CC16. The changes observed in the second phase could be attributed to the tolerance to inhaled vanadium.

Changes in Ovarian and Uterine Morphology and Estrous Cycle in CD-1 Mice After Vanadium Inhalation.

Vanadium is a metal present in particulate matter and its reprotoxic effects have been demonstrated in males and pregnant females in animal models. However, the effects of this metal on the reproductive organs of nonpregnant females have not been sufficiently studied. In a vanadium inhalation model in nonpregnant female mice, we found anestrous and estrous cycle irregularity, as well as low serum concentrations of 17ß-estradiol and progesterone. A decrease in the diameter of secondary and preovulatory follicles, as well as a thickening of the myometrium and endometrial stroma, was observed in the vanadium-treated mice. There was no difference against the control group with respect to the presence of the estrogen receptor α in the uterus of the animals during the estrous stage. Our results indicate that when vanadium is administered by inhalation, effects are observed on the female reproductive organs and the production of female sex hormones.

El megacariocito: una célula muy original / The megakaryocyte: a very original cell

Resumen El megacariocito es la célula más grande de la médula ósea, por lo tanto es relativamente fácil reconocer su presencia al observar un aspirado o una biopsia de este tejido. Difiere de otras células por su tamaño, por ser poliploide y crecer por endomitosis. No hay otra célula humana que crezca así. Además, tiene funciones biológicas muy importantes. La más conocida es el dar origen a las plaquetas, que son indispensables para la hemostasia y la reparación de los vasos sanguíneos dañados, así como para la cicatrización de los tejidos que rodean a las heridas. Sin embargo, en los últimos años, a los megacariocitos también se les han atribuido algunas otras funciones que discutiremos en esta revisión.

Abstract The Megakaryocyte is the biggest cell in the bone marrow; therefore, it is easy to recognize in a bone marrow aspirate. In humans, this cell differs from others because of its size, its polyploidy and because it grows by endomitosis. It is the only human cell that grows this way. In addition, the megakaryocyte has very important biological functions. Its best-known function is being in charge of the production of platelets, which are essential for hemostasis, the repair of damaged blood vessels, and healing the tissues surrounding wounds. However, in recent years, other functions have been attributed to the megakaryocyte, which will be discussed in this review.

Estilo de vida, contaminación atmosférica y problemas que afectan la salud reproductiva en la mujer / Life style, atmospheric pollution and reproductive issues affecting women´s health Abstract

Resumen A nivel mundial, la infertilidad en las parejas ha ido en aumento. Hay muchas causas implicadas en este problema, sin embargo, un factor que influye y que cada vez cobra mayor presencia e importancia es la contaminación atmosférica. Aunque tanto las mujeres como los hombres pueden presentar alteraciones que les impidan ser fértiles, en esta revisión se describen 2 factores que han demostrado afectar la salud reproductiva femenina: el estilo de vida y la contaminación ambiental. Entre los factores de estilo de vida que afectan a la salud reproductiva en las mujeres se incluyen el tabaquismo, la obesidad, el estrés y el aplazamiento de la maternidad. Por el lado de la contaminación atmosférica, se ha demostrado que los plaguicidas organoclorinados, los derivados de combustibles fósiles, los hidrocarburos aromáticos policíclicos, los óxidos de azufre y de nitrógeno, los metales y las partículas suspendidas, generan efectos adversos sobre la capacidad de embarazarse. La evidencia epidemiológica y experimental es cada vez mayor, y demuestra que hay una relación consistente entre la presencia de estos factores y los problemas que tienen cada vez más parejas en el mundo para concebir un hijo. Aunados al estilo de vida, en muchos países son frecuentes los problemas de contaminación que inciden en la infertilidad de la población. Esto hace fundamental crear conciencia. Aunque es cierto que las ciudades o zonas industrializadas es donde se observan estos problemas con mayor frecuencia, no son privativos ni se restringen a esos lugares, nos afectan a todos y, al menos en lo que concierne a la contaminación, todos podemos y debemos participar en la mejora de las condiciones de vida que van de la mano con nuestra salud reproductiva.

Abstract Infertility in couples has been increasing worldwide. There are a lot of causes involved in this issue, however one factor that is gaining a greater presence and importance is air pollution. Although both women and men can present alterations that prevent them from being fertile, this review describes two factors that are known to affect female reproductive health: lifestyle and environmental pollution. Lifestyle factors that affect reproductive health in women include smoking, obesity, stress, and deferment of motherhood. Regarding air pollution, it is known that organo-chlorinated pesticides, fossil fuel derivatives, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, sulfur and nitrogen oxides, metals and suspended particles all produce adverse effects in the possibility of getting pregnant. The increasing body of epidemiological and experimental evidence shows a consistent relationship between the presence of these factors and the issues that a growing number couples around the world present to conceive a child. Along with the lifestyle, pollution is a common cause of infertility in the population in many countries of the world. Hence, it is essential to raise awareness in the population about these consequences. Although ,these problems are more frequently observed in cities or industrialized areas, they are not exclusive or restricted to these places, they affect us all, and at least as far as pollution is concerned, we all can and should participate in the improvement of our living conditions that go along with our reproductive health.

Thymic cytoarchitecture changes in mice exposed to vanadium.

The thymus is a vital immune system organ wherein selection of T-lymphocytes occurs in a process regulated by dendritic and epithelial thymic cells. Previously, we have reported that in a mouse model of vanadium inhalation, a decrease in CD11c dendritic cells was observed. In the present study, we report on a thymic cortex-medulla distribution distortion in these hosts due to apparent effects of the inhaled vanadium on cytokeratin-5 (K5+) epithelial cells in the same mouse model - after 1, 2, and 4 weeks of exposure - by immunohistochemistry. These cells - together with dendritic cells - eliminate autoreactive T-cell clones and regulate the production of regulatory T-cells in situ. Because both cell types are involved in the negative selection of autoreactive clones, a potential for an increase in development of autoimmune conditions could be a possible consequence among individuals who might be exposed often to vanadium in air pollution, including dwellers of highly polluted cities with elevated levels of particulate matter onto which vanadium is often adsorbed.

Activation of Janus kinase/signal transducers and activators of transcription pathway involved in megakaryocyte proliferation induced by vanadium resembles some aspects of essential thrombocythemia.

Vanadium (V) is an air pollutant released into the atmosphere by burning fossil fuels. Also, it has been recently evaluated for their carcinogenic potential to establish permissible limits of exposure at workplaces. We previously reported an increase in the number and size of platelets and their precursor cells and megakaryocytes in bone marrow and spleen. The aim of this study was to identify the involvement of Janus kinase/signal transducers and activators of transcription (JAK/STAT) pathway and thrombopoietin (TPO) receptor, and myeloproliferative leukemia virus oncogene (Mpl), in megakaryocyte proliferation induced by this compound. Mice were exposed twice a week to vanadium pentoxide inhalation (0.02 M) and were killed at 4th, 6th, and 8th week of exposure. Phosphorylated JAK2 (JAK2 ph), STAT3 (STAT3 ph), STAT5, and Mpl were identified in mice spleen megakaryocytes by cytofluorometry and immunohistochemistry. An increase in JAK2 ph and STAT3 ph, but a decrease in Mpl at 8-week exposure was identified in our findings. Taking together, we propose that the morphological findings, JAK/STAT activation, and decreased Mpl receptor induced by V leads to a condition comparable to essential thrombocythemia, so the effect on megakaryocytes caused by different mechanisms is similar. We also suggest that the decrease in Mpl is a negative feedback mechanism after the JAK/STAT activation. Since megakaryocytes are platelet precursors, their alteration affects platelet morphology and function, which might have implications in hemostasis as demonstrated previously, so it is important to continue evaluating the effects of toxics and pollutants on megakaryocytes and platelets.