Viral Infections and Schizophrenia: A Comprehensive Review.

Schizophrenia is a complex mental disorder with multiple genetic and environmental factors contributing to its pathogenesis. Viral infections have been suggested to be one of the environmental factors associated with the development of this disorder. We comprehensively review all relevant published literature focusing on the relationship between schizophrenia and various viral infections, such as influenza virus, herpes virus 1 and 2 (HSV-1 and HSV-2), cytomegalovirus (CMV), Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), retrovirus, coronavirus, and Borna virus. These viruses may interfere with the normal maturation of the brain directly or through immune-induced mediators, such as cytokines, leading to the onset of schizophrenia. Changes in the expression of critical genes and elevated levels of inflammatory cytokines have been linked to virally-induced infections and relevant immune activities in schizophrenia. Future research is necessary to understand this relationship better and provide insight into the molecular mechanisms underlying the pathophysiology of schizophrenia.

The fascinating story of urine examination: From uroscopy to the era of microscopy and beyond.

The purpose of this study was to present the evolution of ideas on the examination of urine from antiquity till our days. A thorough study of texts, medical books from antiquity till twentieth century along with a thorough review of the available literature in PubMed was conducted. The first observation on urine examination can be traced back to the Babylonian and Sumerian texts. Almost all physicians in antiquity including Hippocrates referred to the value of urine examination in the diagnosis and prognosis of diseases. The construction of first compound microscope lead to the examination of urine sediment and the development of Urine Cytology which was revolutionized during the twentieth century with the studies of important cytologists such as George Papanicolaou, Geoffrey Krabbe, and Leopold Koss. The introduction of molecular tests in the diagnosis of urothelial cancer inaugurated a new era in the study of urine cytology. The history of urine examination spans a period of 6,000 years. The application of microscope in the examination of urine sediment during the nineteenth century established urine analysis as an important diagnostic tool in clinical practice.

50 years after the death of George Nicholas Papanicolaou (1883-1962): evaluation of his scientific work.

The purpose of this review article is to summarise the scientific work of George Nicholas Papanicolaou, one of the most eminent figures in the 20th century history of clinical cytology and medicine. Fifty years after his death, his work still remains invaluable, from the early steps in biology and zoology to the application of the Pap test as the most important advancement in the prevention of cervical cancer. The publication of his Atlas was the first important step for the foundation of a new branch in medicine, that of exfoliative cytology. His contribution to cytology undoubtedly earned him the title of the "father of exfoliative cytology" and saved the lives of many women worldwide.

Milestones in the history of research on cardiac energy metabolism.

The present study summarizes the history of research on cardiac metabolism from antiquity till the 21st century. It describes important landmarks regarding the discovery of oxygen and of the 3 steps of cellular respiration, as well as major research on cardiac energy metabolism. For this purpose, we conducted a thorough search of original manuscripts, books, and contemporary reviews published in PubMed. The first views and concepts about the heart's function appear in Greek philosophic manuscripts of 2500 years ago. According to Aristotle, the heart is responsible for heat production, which is essential for life. The understanding of cardiac metabolism awaited new discoveries. The discovery of oxygen during the 18th century, along with the idea of energy conservation, or what is now known as one of the first versions of the first law of thermodynamics, played an important role in initiating the study of energy metabolism in general and heart metabolism later. The discovery of glycolysis, of the Krebs cycle, and of adenosine triphosphate offered a better understanding of cellular respiration, necessary for later research. Indeed, many researchers dedicated their studies to energy metabolism, but Richard John Bing, the renowned German research cardiologist, is the one who guided the exploration of cardiac metabolism, and he is therefore considered to be the father of cardiac energy metabolism. Since then, encouraging new research has been taking place, offering important clinical applications for heart patients.

A brief chronicle of cytology: from Janssen to Papanicolaou and beyond.

The aim of our study was to outline and present the major hallmarks in the history of clinical cytology. For this purpose, an extensive research in modern literature and the PubMed database was undertaken. Furthermore, we studied original papers and books of the pioneers in cytopathology. The development of the first microscope by Hans and Sacharias Janssen is a hallmark in biological sciences, since the study of microcosmos was made feasible. From the discovery of single cells by Robert Hooke and the cell theory by Schleiden and Schwann till the establishment of exfoliative cytology by George Papanicolaou and the invention of fine-needle aspiration biopsy technique by Martin and Ellis, there is a three-century continuum of important discoveries and research. Today, flow cytometry and the introduction of molecular techniques have revolutionized medicine and are expected to change the face of cytology in the near future.

Epilepsy during the Middle Ages, the Renaissance and the Enlightenment.

The purpose of this study was to pinpoint the views on epilepsy as a disease and symptom during medieval times and the Renaissance. A thorough study of texts, medical books and reports along with a review of the available literature in PubMed was undertaken. With the exception of some early Byzantine doctors in the East and some of the representatives of Arab medicine, scientific views and observations on epilepsy in the West were overrun by the domination of the Catholic Church. This led to the formulation of superstitious views of the disease; epileptics were considered possessed and, therefore, only religious methods could possibly cure it. Near the end of the fourteenth century, physicians were emancipated from Catholic intervention. The Renaissance is marked by a plethora of new treatises on epilepsy regarding the mechanisms of epileptic convulsions, the connection with various clinical conditions such as tumors and venereal diseases and the collection of interesting cases.

Fine-needle aspiration (FNA) biopsy: historical aspects.

This study aims to present the origins and the historical evolution of fine-needle aspiration biopsy and to also underline its importance in the history of modern cytology. The article focuses on the advances made in the 20th century that have led to the modern techniques associated with the procedure. The authors conducted a thorough review of early reports on needle biopsy, particularly those published during 19th and 20th century, examining in brief also the origins of the needle biopsy. The first report on the use of needle puncture is referred in early writings of Arab medicine. In the early 20th century, Martin and Ellis are considered to be the founders of modern needle aspiration techniques. The German doctor Mannheim was the first to publish reports suggesting the use of fine needles with a small gauge. The establishment and world-wide expansion of FNA should be attributed to the representatives of the Swedish School of Cytopathology. The school embraced FNA in the second half of the 20th century while serving as a training ground for doctors around the world. The history of needle biopsy spans ten centuries. However, the development and establishment of the technique in its modern form took place primarily during the twentieth century. Today, FNA is considered an important cytologic technique with sufficient diagnostic accuracy, especially when applied in cases of lung and prostate cancer.

Alfred Francois Donné (1801-78): a pioneer of microscopy, microbiology and haematology.

Alfred François Donné is widely known in the scientific community as the discoverer of Trichomonas vaginalis, since he was the first to illustrate the parasite that later was recognized to cause vaginal infections. However, his other, less-known findings are equally important: he was also the inventor of the photoelectric microscope, with the assistance of his student Léon Foucault, as well as the first to apply photography to microscopic preparations (Daguerreotype). His research in microscopy extended to almost all human fluids that could be investigated and culminated in his famous Atlas, which was illustrated with numerous photographs. Donné was also the first to describe the microscopic appearances of leukaemia based on blood preparations acquired from patients. Finally, his work in the hygiene of child upbringing and nutrition is very significant.

A brief history of apoptosis: from ancient to modern times.

The purpose of this article is to sketch the evolution of research on cell death and apoptosis from ancient to modern times. Early use of the term can be found in the texts of Hippocrates, whereas the first description of apoptotic cell death should be attributed to Rudolf Virchow. Glucksman, in 1951, rediscovered and reviewed cell death during embryonic development. Milestone discoveries in biology in the 20th century led biologists to the discovery of apoptotic mechanisms, soon after the definition of apoptosis by Kerr in 1972. The involvement of programmed cell death in the pathogenesis of various diseases and abnormalities gave a huge boost in the research of apoptosis. Nowadays, research is focused on the elucidation of apoptotic mechanisms, since the possibility of modulating cell death by targeting specific factors involved in the whole process could be the key for cure of diseases such as cancer, Alzheimer's disease, and AIDS.

Phylogenetic reconstruction of a known HIV-1 CRF04_cpx transmission network using maximum likelihood and Bayesian methods.

The CRF04_cpx strains of HIV-1 accounts for approximately 2-10% of the infected population in Greece, across different transmission risk groups. CRF04_cpx was the lineage documented in an HIV-1 transmission network in Thessalonica, northern Greece. Most of the transmissions occurred through unprotected heterosexual contacts between 1989 and 1993. Blood samples were available for six patients, obtained 6-10 years later, except for one patient sampled in 1991. Our objective was to examine whether the transmission history is compatible with the evolutionary tree of the virus, in partial gag, partial env, and partial gag+env. The inferred phylogenetic tree obtained using maximum likelihood and Bayesian methods in partial gag+env was much closer to the transmission tree than that using either env or gag separately. Our findings suggest that the epidemiological relationships among patients who have been infected by a common source correspond almost exactly to the evolutionary trees of the virus, given that enough phylogenetic signal is present in the alignment. Moreover, we found evidence that recombination is not the most parsimonious explanation for the phylogenetic incongruence between gag and env. For patients with known infection dates, the estimated dates of the coalescent events obtained using molecular clock calculations based on a newly developed Bayesian method in gag + env were in agreement with the actual infection dates.