Specific biomarker comparison in current smokers, e-cigarette users, and non-smokers.

INTRODUCTION: This study aims to address the existing gap in the literature, while adding evidence, by comparing tobacco-specific biomarkers (cotinine and nitrosamines: NNK, NNAL, NNN), and other biomarkers of e-cigarette use (humectants: glycerol, 1,2-PD, 1,3-PD) according to five study groups. METHODS: A pooling analysis including two different studies was conducted. In both analyses, we took saliva samples from smokers (n = 409) and non-smokers (n = 154), dual tobacco and e-cig users (n = 92), exclusive e-cig user with nicotine (n = 158), and exclusive e-cig users without nicotine (n = 38). We analyzed and compared the geometric means (GM) and geometric standard deviations (GSD) of the concentration of tobacco-specific biomarkers, and e-cigarette biomarkers among groups. We used log-linear models adjusted for sex and age to model the change percentage and their 95% confidence intervals. RESULTS: Cotinine was significantly higher in nicotine consumers and in e-cigarette users without nicotine when compared to non-smokers. TSNAs were generally significantly lower in non-smokers and higher in nicotine consumers. NNN and NNAL were lower in e-cigarette users with nicotine comparted to smokers, and NNN was higher in e-cigarette users without nicotine when compared to non-smokers. No differences were found in humectant biomarkers between e-cigarette groups. CONCLUSIONS: Although there was a reduction in TSNAs in e-cigarette exclusive users compared to smokers, and a reduction of cotinine concentrations in e-cigarette exclusive users without nicotine compared to smokers, there are still high levels of these biomarkers when compared to non-smokers, which may be a clue towards the harmful effect of e-cigarettes.

Variation in Nicotine Metabolization According to Biological Factors and Type of Nicotine Consumer.

This study aims to describe the nicotine metabolite ratio among tobacco smokers and electronic cigarette (e-cigarette) users and nonusers. We analyzed pooled data from a longitudinal and a cross-sectional study of the adult population from the city of Barcelona. The final sample included information on 166 smokers, 164 e-cigarettes users with nicotine, 41 e-cigarette users without nicotine, 95 dual users (users of both products), and 508 nonusers. We used log-linear models to control for the potential confounding effect of the daily number of cigarettes smoked. Salivary nicotine metabolic rate assessment included the rate of nicotine metabolism (cotinine/nicotine) and the nicotine metabolite ratio (trans-3'-hydroxycotinine/cotinine). Exclusive users of e-cigarette without nicotine have the lowest rate of nicotine metabolism (Geometric mean: 0.08, p-values < 0.001) while cigarette smokers have the highest (Geometric mean: 2.08, p-values < 0.001). Nonusers have lower nicotine metabolic rate than cigarette smokers (Geometric means: 0.23 vs. 0.18, p-value < 0.05). Younger individuals (18−44 years) have a higher rate of nicotine metabolism than older individuals (45−64 years and 65−89) (Geometric means: 0.53 vs. 0.42 and 0.31, respectively, p-values < 0.01) and individuals with lower body mass index (21−25 kg/m2) have a higher rate of nicotine metabolism than the rest (26−30 kg/m2 and 31−60 kg/m2) (Geometric means: 0.52 vs. 0.35 and 0.36, respectively-values < 0.01). Nicotine metabolic rates are useful biomarkers when reporting smoking status and biological differences between individuals.

Changes in the salivary cotinine cut-offs to discriminate smokers and non-smokers before and after Spanish smoke-free legislation.

INTRODUCTION: High levels of cotinine in non-smokers indicate passive exposure to tobacco smoke. This study aims to evaluate variations in salivary cotinine cut-offs to discriminate smokers and non-smokers before and after the implementation of smoke-free legislation (Law 28/2005 and Law 42/2010) in a sample of the adult population of Barcelona, Spain. METHODS: This longitudinal study analyzes salivary cotinine samples and self-reported information from a representative sample (n = 676) of the adult population from Barcelona before and after the approval of smoke-free legislation. We calculated the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves, to obtain optimal cotinine cut-off points to discriminate between smokers and non-smokers overall, by sex and age, and their corresponding sensitivity, specificity, and area under the curve. We used linear mixed-effects models, with individuals as random effects, to model the percentage change of cotinine concentration before and after the implementation of both laws. RESULTS: The mean salivary cotinine concentration was significantly lower post-2010 law (-85.8%, p < 0.001). The ROC curves determined that the optimal cotinine cut-off points for discriminating non-smokers and smokers were 10.8 ng/mL (pre-2005 law) and 5.6 ng/mL (post-2010 law), with a post-2010 law sensitivity of 92.6%, specificity of 98.4%, and an area under the curve of 97.0%. The post-2010 law cotinine cut-off points were 5.6 ng/mL for males and 1.9 ng/mL for females. CONCLUSION: The implementation of Spanish smoke-free legislation was effective in reducing secondhand smoke exposure and, therefore, also in reducing the cut-off point for salivary cotinine concentration. This value should be used to better assess tobacco smoke exposure in this population.

Knowledge and Opinions of Healthcare Professionals about Thirdhand Smoke: A Multi-National, Cross-Sectional Study.

There is scarce evidence on the knowledge and opinions about third-hand smoke (THS) of health care professionals. The main aim of this study was to explore the knowledge and opinions of health care professionals about THS and, secondarily, to explore the factors that are associated with this knowledge. Cross-sectional study using a snowball sample of multi-national health care professionals (n = 233). Data were obtained from an exploratory, online questionnaire. The health care professionals' knowledge and opinions on THS were described with absolute frequency and percentage. Chi-square and Fisher-Freeman-Halton exact tests, and simple logistic regression models, were used to explore the bivariate association between the knowledge of the concept THS and sex, continent of birth, educational level, occupation, years of experience, and attitude towards smoking. Finally, a multivariable logistic regression model incorporating all the above variables was fitted. A total of 65.2% of the participants were unaware of the term THS before the study began. In the bivariate analysis, an association was found between prior knowledge of the term THS and continent of birth (p-value = 0.030) and occupation (p-value = 0.014). In the multivariable logistic regression model, a significant association was observed between prior knowledge of the concept THS and sex (p-value = 0.005), continent of birth (p-value = 0.012), and occupation (p-value = 0.001). Almost two out of three health care professionals who participated in our study did not know what THS was. Educational activities on this topic should be implemented.

Compliance Surveillance of the Tobacco Control Legislation in a Spanish Region and Characterization of Passive Exposure to Tobacco Smoke and E-Cig in Children in Outdoor Spaces.

(1) Background: Exposure to environmental tobacco smoke has decreased in recent years in Spain, due to the implementation of tobacco control policies. However, there is no regulation that protects against second-hand smoke (SHS) in outdoor environments. Our goal is to describe the smoking prohibition signage in public spaces and to characterize tobacco consumption in outdoor environments describing the SHS exposure in children. (2) Methods: A cross-sectional study using direct observation was carried out with a convenience sample (n = 179) that included hospitality venues with terraces, schools and healthcare facilities in the municipality of Sant Cugat del Vallès (Barcelona, Spain). The observations were made without notifying the owners by one single field researcher between April and June 2018. The variables were evaluated by signage and signs of tobacco consumption (ashtrays, cigarette butts and presence of smokers). (3) Results: Smoke-free zone signage outside public spaces was present in 30.7% of all venues, with only 50.9% correctness. When analysing terraces of hospitality venues, in 35.8% of them there were children present with 66.7% of tobacco consumption. (4) Conclusions: Our results show a low prevalence of antismoking signage, without an impact on tobacco consumption regardless of the presence of children.

Association between biomarkers of tobacco consumption and lung cancer risk among daily smokers.

BACKGROUND: Biomarkers of tobacco consumption may play a role in the lung cancer risk assessment. However, the role of salivary biomarkers has not been well studied. The aim of this study is to assess the use of salivary biomarkers of tobacco consumption as lung cancer screening criterion. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: Data came from the Determinants of cotinine phase 3 project (Barcelona, 2013-2014). We compared the concentrations of TSNAs, including NNAL, NNN and NNK, and cotinine, in saliva samples of 142 daily smokers from the general population according to their risk of lung cancer. High risk of lung cancer was defined as per the inclusion criteria in the US National Lung Screening Trial (NLST) and in the Dutch-Belgian lung cancer screening trial (NELSON). RESULTS: Among daily smokers accomplishing the age criterion for lung cancer screening, salivary concentrations of cotinine, NNAL and NNK adjusted for sex were significantly higher (p-value < 0.05) in daily smokers at high risk of lung cancer compared to smokers not at high risk according to both NELSON and NLST criteria. CONCLUSIONS: Saliva concentrations of cotinine, NNAL and NNK may be used as additional criteria for lung cancer screening. Further research on this topic is guaranteed.

Third-hand exposure at homes: Assessment using salivary cotinine.

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES: While exposure to secondhand smoke (SHS) is a well-established problem, exposure to third-hand smoke (THS) is scanty known and needs to be studied. The objective of this work is to characterize salivary cotinine concentrations among people who self-reported exposure to SHS and THS at home. METHODS: Cross-sectional study of a representative sample (n = 736) of the adult population (≥16 years) from the city of Barcelona carried out in 2013-2014. A questionnaire on tobacco use and passive exposure was administered, and a saliva sample was collected for cotinine determination. For this study, the information of the non-smoker participants who provided saliva sample (n = 519) was used. The geometric means (GM) and geometric standard deviations (GSD) of the cotinine concentration were compared according to the type of self-reported exposure at home: (1) Not exposed to SHS or THS; (2) Exposed to SHS and THS; and (3) Only exposed to THS. We used log-linear models to compare the cotinine concentration of each exposed group with respect to the unexposed group, adjusting for sex, age, educational level, and tobacco exposure in other settings. RESULTS: The GM of the salivary cotinine concentration was 0.34 ng/ml (GSD = 0.16) among individuals reporting SHS and THS exposure, 0.22 ng/ml (GSD = 0.15) among those reporting only THS exposure and 0.11 ng/ml (GSD = 0.04) among those who declared not to be exposed to SHS nor THS (p-value for trend <0.001). The regression model showed a statistically significant increase in cotinine concentration among those exposed to SHS and THS (188% higher, 95% CI: 153%; 223%), and only exposed to THS (106% higher, IC95. %: 74.5%; 137.0%) when comparing with the unexposed group. No statistically significant differences in cotinine concentration were observed between those exposed to SHS and THS compared to the THS group (-25.8%, 95% CI: -69.5%; 17.9%). CONCLUSIONS/RECOMMENDATIONS: People exposed to third-hand smoke at home had quantifiable cotinine levels in saliva. No differences in cotinine levels were found between those exposed to second-hand and third-hand smoke at home. The reduction of exposure to third-hand smoke at home should be put into the agenda of tobacco control.

Estimation of the Risk of Lung Cancer in Women Participating in a Population-Based Breast Cancer Screening Program. / Estimación del riesgo de cáncer de pulmón en mujeres que participan en un programa de cribado poblacional de cáncer de mama.

INTRODUCTION: Lung cancer mortality is increasing in women. In Spain, estimates suggest that lung cancer mortality may soon surpass breast cancer mortality, the main cause of cancer mortality among women. The aim of this study was to estimate the proportion of women at high risk of developing lung cancer in a group of participants in a population-based breast cancer screening program. METHODS: Cross-sectional study in a sample of women who participated in a population-based breast cancer screening program in 2016 in Hospitalet de Llobregat (n=1,601). High risk of lung cancer was defined according to the criteria of the National Lung Screening Trial (NLST) and the Dutch-Belgian randomized lung cancer screening trial (NELSON). RESULTS: Around 20% of smokers according to NLST criteria and 40% of smokers according to NELSON criteria, and around 20% of former smokers according to both criteria, are at high risk of developing lung cancer. A positive and statistically significant trend is observed between the proportion of women at high risk and nicotine dependence measured with the brief Fagerström test. CONCLUSIONS: A high proportion of participants in this breast cancer screening program have a high risk of developing lung cancer and would be eligible to participate in a lung cancer screening program. Population-based breast cancer screening programs may be useful to implement lung cancer primary prevention activities.

Relation between tobacco control policies and population at high risk of lung cancer in the European Union.

INTRODUCTION: Lung cancer accounts for nearly 2 million deaths per year worldwide, the majority of cases due to smoking as the main risk factor associated. The aim of this study was to assess the relation between the level of implementation of tobacco control policies and the population at high risk of lung cancer in the European Union (EU). METHODS: The Special Eurobarometer 458 "Attitudes of Europeans towards tobacco and electronic cigarettes", conducted in 2017, and the Tobacco Control Scale (TCS) 2010, 2013, and 2016 were the sources of our data. High risk of lung cancer was defined by the inclusion criteria in the National Lung Screening Trial (NLST) and the Dutch-Belgian Lung Cancer Screening Trial (NELSON), the largest lung cancer screening trials carried out in the US and the EU. We calculated Spearman's rank correlation coefficients (rsp) and fitted multilevel generalized linear mixed models using the quasi-Poisson family to assess the correlation at the national level and analyze the association at the individual level, respectively, between the scores in the TCS (higher scores means better implementation of tobacco control policies) and the proportion of individuals at high risk of lung cancer in member states of the EU. RESULTS: The scores in the TCS 2010 were statistically negatively correlated with the current proportion of ever and former smokers at high risk according to NELSON criteria (-0.41; 95%CI -0.68, -0.04 and -0.49; 95%CI -0.73, -0.13, respectively). We observed statistically significant inverse associations between the scores in the TCS 2010 for the highest quartiles and the proportion of individuals at high risk of lung cancer according to both criteria. Non-statistically significant negative correlations and inverse associations were observed with other TCS. CONCLUSION: There is a lag between the implementation of tobacco control policies and the reduction of the rates of high risk of lung cancer. Member states should reinforce comprehensive tobacco control policies to reduce the population at high risk of lung cancer in the EU.

[Prevalence of smoke-free homes and passive exposure to tobacco in pediatric population (children from 3 to 36 months)]. / Prevalencia de hogares libres de humo y exposición pasiva al tabaco en población pediátrica (niños de 3 a 36 meses).

OBJECTIVE: Pediatric population is the most vulnerable to secondhand smoke (SHS), exposure being households the main source of exposure in children. The objective of this study is to describe smoke-free households and the prevalence of SHS in the pediatric population (from 3 to 36 months) in Spain. METHODS: Cross-sectional study with 1,368 parents, mothers or guardians with children from 3 to 36 months carried out in Spain from March to November of 2017 through an online questionnaire as part of the EPISON study. Information was collected on the voluntary adoption of tobacco use regulations at home and SHS exposure at home and other environments. We calculated prevalences and Odds Ratio adjusted (ORa) for sex, age, level of education, and smoking status. RESULTS: 87.6% of respondents claimed to have a smoke-free home. 12.4% of respondents had partial regulation or did not have regulation at home, increasing up to 26.0% when the parent was a smoker or to 21.8% when the parent had primary or lower education. 5.4% of parents reported SHS exposure in their children at their homes, rising to 14.5% when it occurs in other environments, increasing with statistically significant differences between smoking parents and parents with lower educational level. CONCLUSIONS: The smoke-free homes are the majority; but SHS exposure to tobacco at home persists in children under 3 years of age, especially in families with a lower educational level. Therefore, awareness-raising campaigns on the effects of passive exposure on minors among families with.

OBJETIVO: La población pediátrica es la más vulnerable a la exposición pasiva al humo ambiental del tabaco (HAT), siendo los hogares la fuente principal de exposición en niños. El objetivo de este estudio fue describir los hogares libres de humo y la prevalencia de exposición pasiva al HAT en la población pediátrica (de 3 a 36 meses) en España. METODOS: Estudio transversal con 1.368 padres, madres o tutores con hijos de 3 a 36 meses realizado en España de marzo a noviembre de 2017 mediante cuestionario online como parte del estudio EPISON. Se recogió información sobre la adopción voluntaria de normas de consumo de tabaco en el hogar y exposición al HAT en casa y otros ambientes. Se calcularon las prevalencias y las Odds Ratio ajustadas (ORa) por sexo, edad, nivel educativo y consumo de tabaco. RESULTADOS: El 87,6% de los encuestados afirmó tener un hogar libre de humo. El 12,4% de los encuestados tenían regulación parcial o no tenían ninguna regulación en el hogar, incrementándose hasta el 26% cuando el progenitor era fumador o al 21,8% cuando tenía estudios primarios o inferiores. El 5,4% de los padres refirió exposición pasiva al tabaco en niños en sus hogares, elevándose hasta el 14,5% cuando la exposición se produjo en otros ambientes, incrementándose de forma estadísticamente significativa la diferencia entre los padres fumadores y con menor nivel educativo. CONCLUSIONES: Los hogares libres de humo son mayoritarios, pero persiste la exposición pasiva al tabaco en el hogar con niños menores de 3 años, especialmente en familias con menor nivel educativo. Por ello, se deberían incentivar campañas de sensibilización sobre los efectos de la exposición pasiva en menores, especialmente en familias con menos recursos.

[Support to smoking regulation in private vehicles and public outdoor spaces]. / Apoyo a la regulación de fumar en el interior de vehículos privados y espacios públicos al aire libre.

OBJECTIVE: To know the support of tobacco regulation is a very important issue to advance in the tobacco control policies and reduce the passive exposure to tobacco. The aim of this study was to describe the attitudes towards forbidding smoking in private vehicles and public outdoor spaces. METHODS: This is a cross-sectional study of a representative sample (n=736) of the adult population (24+ years old) from Barcelona, Spain in 2013-2014. We calculated the percentages of individuals who had a favourable attitude towards smoking regulation in private vehicles and public outdoor spaces, their adjusted Odds ratios (aOR) and their 95% confidence intervals (95%CI) according to sex, age, educational level and smoking status through logistic regression. We used weighted data for all analyses in order to keep the representativeness of the population of Barcelona in 2013-2014. RESULTS: 61.7% of participants supported forbidding smoking in private vehicles and 89.5% supported forbidding it only in the presence of minors. The support to smoking regulation in public outdoor spaces varied from 42.5% to 84.7% in different settings. Smokers showed a less favourable attitude towards an extension of the smoking regulation to other settings: outdoor areas of university centres, outdoor areas of shopping centres and beaches and outdoor pools. CONCLUSIONS: A wide support exists to extend the smoking regulation to private vehicles, especially in the presence of children, and public outdoor spaces. This wide support could favour the extension of smoking regulation to these places to improve the population's health and to contribute to denormalise tobacco use among the population.

OBJETIVO: Conocer el apoyo a la regulación del consumo de tabaco es una pieza clave para avanzar en las políticas de control del tabaquismo y reducir la exposición pasiva al tabaco. El objetivo de este trabajo fue describir las actitudes hacia la prohibición de fumar en los vehículos privados y espacios públicos al aire libre. METODOS: studio transversal de una muestra representativa (n=736) de la población adulta (mayor de 24 años) de la ciudad de Barcelona, España, realizado en 2013-2014. Se calcularon el porcentaje de individuos que tenían una actitud favorable a la regulación del consumo de tabaco en el interior de vehículos privados y espacios públicos al aire libre, las Odds Ratio ajustadas (ORa) y sus intervalos de confianza al 95% (IC95%) según sexo, edad, nivel de estudios y estatus de consumo de tabaco mediante un modelo de regresión logística. Se utilizaron pesos de probabilidad inversa para mantener la representatividad de la población de Barcelona en 2013-2014. RESULTADOS: El 61,7% de los participantes estuvo a favor de la prohibición de fumar dentro de los vehículos privados y el 89,5% de prohibirlo sólo en presencia de menores. El apoyo a la regulación del consumo de tabaco en espacios exteriores varió entre 42,5% hasta 84,7% dependiendo del ambiente. Los fumadores mostraron una actitud menos favorable a la ampliación de la regulación a otros espacios: zonas exteriores de los centros universitarios, zonas exteriores de los centros comerciales y playas y piscinas descubiertas. CONCLUSIONES: Existe un amplio apoyo a la extensión de la regulación del consumo del tabaco en el interior de vehículos privados, especialmente en presencia de menores, y espacios públicos al aire libre. Este amplio apoyo podría favorecer la ampliación de la regulación del consumo de tabaco a estos espacios a fin de mejorar la salud de la población y al mismo tiempo contribuir a la desnormalización del consumo de tabaco entre la población.

Comparison of TSNAs concentration in saliva according to type of tobacco smoked.

OBJECTIVE: To compare tobacco-specific nitrosamines (TSNAs) measured in saliva according to different types of tobacco smoked in a sample of smokers of the city of Barcelona (Spain). METHODS: We used data from a cross-sectional study of a sample of the adult smoking population of Barcelona, Spain in 2013-2014 (n = 165). We classified smokers in five groups according to the type of tobacco smoked: a) manufactured cigarettes only, b) roll-your-own (RYO) cigarettes only, c) dual smokers (both manufactured and RYO cigarettes), d) manufactured plus other types of tobacco products different from RYO and e) other types of tobacco products different from manufactured and RYO cigarettes. We calculated the geometric mean (GM) and geometric standard deviation (GSD) of TSNAs concentration in saliva (pg/mL), including N'-nitroaonornicotine (NNN), 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK) and 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanol (NNAL) according to the five tobacco groups. We also described all TSNAs concentration in each tobacco group stratified by the number of cigarettes smoked per day. RESULTS: Smokers from the RYO cigarette group had higher TSNAs concentration than smokers from the manufactured cigarette group: 13 pg/mL vs 4.9 pg/mL of NNN, 1.9 pg/mL vs 1.7 pg/mL in NNK and 1.1 pg/mL vs 0.9 pg/mL of NNAL. There were significant differences in NNN concentrations between smokers of RYO vs manufactured cigarettes. The higher the number of cigarettes smoked, the higher the TSNAs concentrations. After adjusted by number of cigarettes smoked, there were not statistically significant differences in TSNAs between RYO and manufactured cigarettes. CONCLUSIONS: Our data shows that RYO cigarette is at least as hazardous as manufactured cigarettes. Regulating RYO tobacco prices could be an effective strategy to control tobacco use.

Estimation of the adult population at high risk of developing lung cancer in the European Union.

Background Lung cancer mortality accounts for over 266,000 deaths in the European Union (EU) every year, most of them attributed to smoking. The aim of this study was to estimate the prevalence of the adult population at high risk of developing lung cancer in the EU in 2014. Methods This is a cross-sectional study. We used data from the Special Eurobarometer 429 (n = 27,801). The fieldwork was conducted between November-December 2014. High risk of lung cancer was defined using the criteria of the National Lung Screening Trial (NLST) and the Dutch-Belgian Lung Cancer Screening Trial (NELSON). Results One out of ten smokers (11.6% of men and 9.6% of women) according to NLST criteria and one out of four smokers (24.6% of men and 22.4% of women) according to NELSON criteria are currently at high risk of lung cancer in the EU. According to both criteria, the prevalence of former smokers at high risk of lung cancer is under 10%. Conclusion Around 17 million citizens in the EU according to NLST criteria and 34 million according to NELSON criteria (around 4% and 8% of the adult population, respectively) are at high risk of developing lung cancer. Since the implementation of lung cancer screening programs still remains controversial, primary prevention activities should be encouraged.

Sentinel Amenable Mortality: A New Way to Assess the Quality of Healthcare by Examining Causes of Premature Death for Which Highly Efficacious Medical Interventions Are Available.

BACKGROUND: Amenable mortality, or premature deaths that could be prevented with medical care, is a proven indicator for assessing healthcare quality when adapted to a country or region's specific healthcare context. This concept is currently used to evaluate the performance of national and international healthcare systems. However, the levels of efficacy and effectiveness determined using this indicator can vary greatly depending on the causes of death that are included. We introduce a new approach by identifying a subgroup of causes for which there are available treatments with a high level of efficacy. These causes should be considered sentinel events to help identify limitations in the effectiveness and quality of health provision. METHODS: We conducted an extensive literature review using a list of amenable causes of death compiled by Spanish researchers. We complemented this approach by assessing the time trends of amenable mortality in two high-income countries that have a similar quality of healthcare but very different systems of provision, namely, Spain and the United States. This enabled us to identify different levels of efficacy of medical interventions (high, medium, and low). We consulted a group of medical experts and combined this information to help make the final classification of sentinel amenable causes of death. RESULTS: Sentinel amenable mortality includes causes such as surgical conditions, thyroid diseases, and asthma. The remaining amenable causes of death either have a higher complexity in terms of the disease or need more effective medical interventions or preventative measures to guarantee early detection and adherence to treatment. These included cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, hypertension, all amenable cancers, and some infectious diseases such as pneumonia, influenza, and tuberculosis. CONCLUSIONS: Sentinel amenable mortality could act as a good sentinel indicator to identify major deficiencies in healthcare quality and provision and detect inequalities across populations.

Projections in Breast and Lung Cancer Mortality among Women: A Bayesian Analysis of 52 Countries Worldwide.

Among women, lung cancer mortality rates have surpassed those for breast cancer in several countries. This reflects the breast cancer mortality declines due to access to screening and effective treatment alongside the entrance of certain countries in stages of the tobacco epidemic in which smoking becomes more prevalent in women. In this study, we project lung and breast cancer mortality until 2030 in 52 countries. Cancer mortality data were obtained from the WHO Mortality Database. Age-standardized mortality rates (ASMR), per 100,000, were calculated (direct method) for 2008 to 2014 and projected for the years 2015, 2020, 2025, and 2030 using a Bayesian log-linear Poisson model. In 52 countries studied around the world, between 2015 and 2030, the median ASMR are projected to increase for lung cancer, from 11.2 to 16.0, whereas declines are expected for breast cancer, from 16.1 to 14.7. In the same period, the ASMR will decrease in 36 countries for breast cancer and in 15 countries for lung cancer. In half of the countries analyzed, and in nearly three quarters of those classified as high-income countries, the ASMR for lung cancer has already surpassed or will surpass the breast cancer ASMR before 2030. The mortality for lung and breast cancer is higher in high-income countries than in middle-income countries; lung cancer mortality is lower in the latter because the tobacco epidemic is not yet widespread. Due to these observed characteristics of lung cancer, primary prevention should still be a key factor to decrease lung cancer mortality.Significance: The mortality for lung and breast cancer is projected to be higher in high-income countries than in middle-income countries, where lung cancer mortality is expected to surpass breast cancer mortality before 2030. Cancer Res; 78(15); 4436-42. ©2018 AACR.

Impact of the Spanish smoking legislation among smokers: A longitudinal study with biomarkers in Barcelona (Spain).

BACKGROUND: The aim of this study is to assess the impact of the Spanish tobacco control legislation on smoking behavior and salivary cotinine concentration among smokers. METHODS: We used data from a longitudinal study, before (2004-2005) and after (2013-2014) the implementation of the two national smoking bans (in 2006 and 2011), in a representative sample of adults (≥16 years old) from Barcelona (Spain). We only analyzed a subsample of continuing smokers (n = 116). We conducted a survey on smoking behavior and obtained saliva sample for cotinine analyses. For this report, we analyzed a subsample of continuing smokers (n = 116). We calculated geometric means (GM). RESULTS: Among continuing smokers, salivary cotinine concentration significantly increased by 28.7% (GM from 91.7 ng/ml to 117.3 ng/ml, p = 0.015) after the implementation of the two Spanish smoke-free bans. Nonetheless, no pattern of change was observed in the self-reported number of cigarettes smoked daily. CONCLUSIONS: Our study shows a significant increase in the salivary cotinine concentration among adult continuing smokers after both Spanish legislations. This increase could be due to differences in smoking topography (increase in the depth of inhalation when smoking) along with changes in the type of tobacco smoked (increase in smoking roll-your-own cigarettes or mixed use of roll-your-own and manufactured cigarettes). Our results suggest the need to extend tobacco control policies, focusing on the reduction of use of any type of tobacco product and implementing better treatment to help smokers stop smoking.

Identifying high-risk individuals for lung cancer screening: Going beyond NLST criteria.

BACKGROUND: There are two main types of strategies to identify target population for lung cancer screening: 1) strategies based on age and cumulative smoking criteria, 2) risk prediction models allowing the calculation of an individual risk. The objective of this study was to compare different strategies to identify the proportion of the Spanish population at high risk of developing lung cancer, susceptible to be included in a lung cancer screening programme. METHODS: Cross-sectional study. We used the data of the Spanish National Interview Health Survey (ENSE) of 2011-2012 (21,006 individuals) to estimate the proportion of participants at high risk of developing lung cancer. This estimation was performed using the U.S. national lung screening trial (NLST) criteria and a 6-year prediction model (PLCOm2012), both independently and in combination. RESULTS: The prevalence of individuals at high risk of developing lung cancer according to the NLST criteria was 4.9% (7.9% for men, 2.4% for women). Among the 1,034 subjects who met the NLST criteria, 533 (427 men and 106 women) had a 6-year lung cancer risk ≥2.0%. The combination of these two selection strategies showed that 2.5% of the Spanish population had a high risk of developing lung cancer. However, this selection process did not take into account different groups of subjects <75 years old having an individual risk of lung cancer ≥2%, such as heavy smokers <55 years old who were long-time former smokers, and ever-smokers having smoked <30 pack-years with other risk factors. CONCLUSIONS: Further research is needed to determine which selection strategy achieves a higher benefit/harm ratio and to assess other prevention strategies for individuals with elevated risk for lung cancer but who do not meet the screening eligibility criteria.