Myocardial Iron Overload in an Experimental Model of Sudden Unexpected Death in Epilepsy.

Uncontrolled repetitive generalized tonic-clonic seizures (GTCS) are the main risk factor for sudden unexpected death in epilepsy (SUDEP). GTCS can be observed in models such as Pentylenetetrazole kindling (PTZ-K) or pilocarpine-induced Status Epilepticus (SE-P), which share similar alterations in cardiac function, with a high risk of SUDEP. Terminal cardiac arrhythmia in SUDEP can develop as a result of a high rate of hypoxic stress-induced by convulsions with excessive sympathetic overstimulation that triggers a neurocardiogenic injury, recently defined as "Epileptic Heart" and characterized by heart rhythm disturbances, such as bradycardia and lengthening of the QT interval. Recently, an iron overload-dependent form of non-apoptotic cell death called ferroptosis was described at the brain level in both the PTZ-K and SE-P experimental models. However, seizure-related cardiac ferroptosis has not yet been reported. Iron overload cardiomyopathy (IOC) results from the accumulation of iron in the myocardium, with high production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), lipid peroxidation, and accumulation of hemosiderin as the final biomarker related to cardiomyocyte ferroptosis. Iron overload cardiomyopathy is the leading cause of death in patients with iron overload secondary to chronic blood transfusion therapy; it is also described in hereditary hemochromatosis. GTCS, through repeated hypoxic stress, can increase ROS production in the heart and cause cardiomyocyte ferroptosis. We hypothesized that iron accumulation in the "Epileptic Heart" could be associated with a terminal cardiac arrhythmia described in the IOC and the development of state-potentially in the development of SUDEP. Using the aforementioned PTZ-K and SE-P experimental models, after SUDEP-related repetitive GTCS, we observed an increase in the cardiac expression of hypoxic inducible factor 1α, indicating hypoxic-ischemic damage, and both necrotic cells and hemorrhagic areas were related to the possible hemosiderin production in the PTZ-K model. Furthermore, we demonstrated for the first time an accumulation of hemosiderin in the heart in the SE-P model. These results suggest that uncontrolled recurrent seizures, as described in refractory epilepsy, can give rise to high hypoxic stress in the heart, thus inducing hemosiderin accumulation as in IOC, and can act as an underlying hidden mechanism contributing to the development of a terminal cardiac arrhythmia in SUDEP. Because iron accumulation in tissues can be detected by non-invasive imaging methods, cardiac iron overload in refractory epilepsy patients could be treated with chelation therapy to reduce the risk of SUDEP.

Experimental evidence of the potential use of erythropoietin by intranasal administration as a neuroprotective agent in cerebral hypoxia.

Stroke is a major human health problem without efficient available therapeutics. Ischemic brain injury can induce cell death as well as upregulation of endogenous adaptive mechanisms depending on the severity and duration of hypoxia, and the activity of transcription factors, such as hypoxia inducible factor 1-α (HIF-1α). HIF-1α induces gene expression as multidrug resistance (MDR-1) gene associated with drug-refractory phenotype, as well as erythropoietin (Epo) and erythropoietin receptor (Epo-R) associated with O(2) supply. The spontaneous stimulation of the Epo/Epo-R system is not enough for brain protection. Therefore, administration of exogenous recombinant human Epo (rHu-Epo) was suggested as an alternative therapy in stroke. In several experimental models of brain hypoxia, Epo and Epo variants, including rHu-Epo, showed neuroprotective effects. Intranasal administration of these Epo-compounds can reach the central nervous system and protect the brain against ischemia, avoiding hematopoietic effects. However, it has been reported that high expression of Epo-R in neurons must be available to be activated by Epo. According to these considerations, intranasal delivery of rHu-Epo could be an interesting approach in the treatment of cerebral hypoxias avoiding both (i) adverse peripheral effects of treatment with Epo in stroke, and (ii) the pharmacoresistant phenotype depending on MDR-1 expression.

Recovery of motor spontaneous activity after intranasal delivery of human recombinant erythropoietin in a focal brain hypoxia model induced by CoCl2 in rats.

Stroke is a major human health problem inducing long-term disability without any efficient therapeutic option being currently available. Under hypoxia, hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α) activates several genes as erythropoietin receptor (Epo-R) related with O(2) supply, and the multidrug-resistance gene (MDR-1) related with drug-refractory phenotype. Brain cortical injection of CoCl(2) produces focal hypoxia-like lesion with neuronal and glial alterations, as well as HIF-1α stabilization and MDR-1 overexpression. Intranasal (IN) drug delivery can by-pass blood-brain barrier (BBB) where MDR-1 is normally expressed. We evaluated the effects of IN-rHu-Epo administration on spontaneous motor activity (SMA) and the brain pattern expression of HIF-1α, MDR-1, and Epo-R in our cobalt-induced hypoxia model. Adult male Wistar rats were injected by stereotaxic surgery in frontoparietal cortex, with CoCl(2) (2 µl-50 mM; n = 20) or saline (controls; n = 20). Ten rats of each group were treated with IN-rHu-Epo 24 U or IN-saline. In addition, erythropoietic stimulation was evaluated by reticulocytes (Ret) account during three consecutive days, after intraperitoneal (i.p.)-recombinant-human Epo (rHu-Epo) (950 U; n = 6) or IN-rHu-Epo (24 U; n = 6) administration. SMA was evaluated by open field and rotarod tests, before and after surgical procedures during five consecutive days. Histological and immunostaining studies of HIF-1α, MDR-1, and Epo-R were performed on brain slides. A significant difference in SMA was observed in the hypoxic rats of IN-rHu-Epo-administered group as compared with Co-Saline-treated subjects and controls (p < 0.001). HIF-1α, EPO-R, and MDR-1 were overexpressed in the hypoxic cortex areas, while in contralateral hemisphere or controls, they were negatives. Reticulocytes were only increased in intraperitoneal (i.p.)-rHu-Epo-administered group. In spite of MDR-1 overexpression being detected in neurons, the coexpression of Epo-R could explain the positive effects observed on SMA of IN-rHu-Epo-administered group.

Neuronal mdr-1 gene expression after experimental focal hypoxia: a new obstacle for neuroprotection?

Neuronal damage after stroke-associated brain hypoxia is a leading cause of long-term disability and death. The refractoriness to therapeutic strategies for neuroprotection after 3 h post brain ischemia is poorly understood. P-glycoprotein (P-gp), the multidrug resistance gene (MDR-1) product is normally expressed at blood-brain-barrier. P-gp neuronal expression has been demonstrated in refractory epilepsy and after brain ischemia. In this report we investigated the hypoxia-induced neuronal P-gp expression after local injection of CoCl(2) (1-200 mM) in the fronto-parietal cortex of male adult rats (Bregma -1.30 mm) by stereotaxic surgery. P-gp immunostaining of brain slides was analyzed using specific monoclonal antibodies and double immunolabeling was done with specific astrocytic and neuronal markers. Five days after injection of 1 mM CoCl(2), P-gp expression surrounding the lesion site was observed in neurons, astrocytic end-foot on capillary blood vessels and endothelial cells on blood vessels. Higher CoCl(2) doses (200 mM) resulted in additional P-gp immunostaining of the entire astrocytic and neuronal cytoplasm. Electron microscopy (EM) studies showed alterations in neurons as early as 6 h after the CoCl(2) injection. P-gp expression in hypoxic neurons and astrocytic end-foot could potentially impair of drugs access to the brain parenchyma thus suggesting the presence of two P-gp-based pumping systems (one in astrocytes and other in the hypoxic neurons) that are able to behave as a previously unnoticed obstacle for pharmacological strategies of neuroprotection.

Receptor soluble de transferrina y eritropoyetina en la anemia de los procesos crónicos con y sin deficiencia de hierro / Soluble transferrin receptor and erythropoietin in chronic disease anemia with or without iron deficiency

La regulación del receptor de transferrina (RTF) está relacionada con los depósitos de hierro (Fe) intracelular y guarda una relación constante con el receptor soluble presente en plasma. Se ha demostrado que en las anemias por deficiencia de Fe (AF) cuando se produce la disminución de los depósitos de Fe, aumenta la expresión del receptor. En las anemias de los procesos crónicos (APC) establecer el verdadero estado del Fe es complejo, debido a la influencia que tienen los procesos inflamatorios ó infecciosos en el equilibrio del Fe orgánico. Se estudiaron 30 sujetos sanos normales (grupo control) y 42 pacientes anémicos ( hemoglobina menor de 120 g/L) que presentaban APC con y sin deficiencia de hierro, a fin de establecer el valor diagnóstico del receptor soluble de transferrina (RTFs). Se correlacionó la eritropoyetina (EPO) como factor estimulador de la eritropoyesis , con los descensos de hemoglobina que se producen en ambos grupos. Los resultados fueron analizados aplicando el test estadístico ANOVA, no encontrándose diferencia significativa en los valores de RTFs entre los grupos de APC con y sin deficiencia de Fe. La relación log EPO versus hemoglobina (Hb) en ambos grupos mostró una correlación inversa estadísticamente significativa. Se concluye que de acuerdo a los resultados obtenidos, los valores de RTFs en estos pacientes se encuentran dentro de los rangos normales y no se relacionan con el estado del hierro orgánico. Por consiguiente, su empleo como parámetro diferencial para establecer deficiencia de hierro en las APC, no tendría aplicación diagnóstica.

Aplicacion de tecnicas immunocitoquimicas para el diagnostico de neoplasias hematologicas / Immunocytochemistry techniques for the diagnosis of hematological neoplasias

Se estudiaron 22 pacientes con neoplasias hematológicas que incluían: 12 pacientes con diagnóstico de Leucemia Mieloide Aguda (LMA) de novo, según criterio morfológico y citoquímico establecido por la FAB Comité Francés, Americano, Británico), una LMA secundaria a Síndrome mielodisplásico (SMD), y una leucemia aguda bifenotípica, donde se correlacionó la reacción citoquímica de peroxidasas con la metodología de anti-mieloperoxidasa (MPO) por fosfatasa alcalina anti-fosfatasa (AFAAF). Los estudios fueron completados con la reacción citoquímica de esterasas inespecíficas y el fenotipo inmunológico se estableció por citometría de flujo para definir la estirpe celular mieloide o linfoide. La misma técnica fue utilizada para el análisis celular de restricción de cadenas livianas kappa y lambda en 8 pacientes con desórdenes linfoproliferativos malignos de origen B que comprendían 3 casos de Leucemia a células vellosas (HCL), 1 caso de Linfoma leucemizado y 4 casos de neoplasias de células plasmáticas vs una plasmocitosis reactiva. Se concluye que las reacciones inmunocitoquímicas aplicadas a las patologías estudiadas y otras enfermedades hematopoyéticas son útiles cuando la morfología y la citoquímica no han sido conduyentes para establecer un correcto diagnóstico y para distinguir un linaje celular, por ej. linfoma tipo B y T. Sin embargo, se debe enfatizar que su uso diagnóstico es útil como técnica complementaria de los estudios histopatológicos, morfológicos, citoquímicos y fenotípicos celulares, siendo aún discutida su importancia pronóstica.

Actividad bactericida de los neutrofilos en pacientes con infecciones graves y moderadas. / Bactericidal activity of neutrophils in patients with severe and moderate infections

Se estudio la funcion bactericida de los neutrofilos en 20 pacientes con sepsis grave, 9 con infecciones moderadas y 17 voluntarios sanos.La actividad bactericida se midio mediante la prueba de reduccion del azul de nitrotetrazolio (NBT), utilizando uma tecnica estimulada por Staphylococcus epidermidis y cuantificable colorimetricamente. Los resultados revelaron que ambos grupos de pacientes diferian significativamente del grupo control (p < 0.01) Los datos expuestos demostraron una inhibicion de la respuesta neutrofila en la sepsis severa, que contrasta con los valores altos de reduccion del NBT hallados en los procesos infecciosos de menor gravedad Esta disminuicion en la capacidad bactericida de los neutrofilos hallada en pacientes septicos a pesar de la estimulacion y descartada una disfuncion hereditaria del sistema fagocitario puede considerarse un defecto adquirido producido posiblemente por el mismo proceso septico