Racial disparity in prostate cancer: an outlook in genetic and molecular landscape.

Prostate cancer (PCa) incidence, morbidity, and mortality rates are significantly impacted by racial disparities. Despite innovative therapeutic approaches and advancements in prevention, men of African American (AA) ancestry are at a higher risk of developing PCa and have a more aggressive and metastatic form of the disease at the time of initial PCa diagnosis than other races. Research on PCa has underlined the biological and molecular basis of racial disparity and emphasized the genetic aspect as the fundamental component of racial inequality. Furthermore, the lower enrollment rate, limited access to national-level cancer facilities, and deferred treatment of AA men and other minorities are hurdles in improving the outcomes of PCa patients. This review provides the most up-to-date information on various biological and molecular contributing factors, such as the single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), mutational spectrum, altered chromosomal loci, differential gene expression, transcriptome analysis, epigenetic factors, tumor microenvironment (TME), and immune modulation of PCa racial disparities. This review also highlights future research avenues to explore the underlying biological factors contributing to PCa disparities, particularly in men of African ancestry.

Androgen-deprivation therapy with leuprolide increases abdominal adiposity without causing cardiac dysfunction in middle-aged male mice: effect of sildenafil.

Androgen-deprivation therapy (ADT) is the primary systemic therapy for treating advanced or metastatic prostate cancer (PCa), which has improved survival outcomes in patients with PCa. However, ADT may develop metabolic and cardiovascular adverse events that impact the quality of life and lifespan in PCa survivors. The present study was designed to establish a murine model of ADT with a gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) agonist leuprolide and to investigate its effects on metabolism and cardiac function. We also examined the potential cardioprotective role of sildenafil (inhibitor of phosphodiesterase 5) under chronic ADT. Middle-aged male C57BL/6J mice received a 12-wk subcutaneous infusion via osmotic minipumps containing either saline or 18 mg/4 wk leuprolide with or without 1.3 mg/4 wk sildenafil cotreatment. Compared with saline controls, leuprolide treatment significantly reduced prostate weight and serum testosterone levels, confirming chemical castration in these mice. The ADT-induced chemical castration was not affected by sildenafil. Leuprolide significantly increased the weight of abdominal fat after 12-wk treatment without a change in total body weight, and sildenafil did not block the proadipogenic effect of leuprolide. No signs of left ventricular systolic and diastolic dysfunction were observed throughout the leuprolide treatment period. Interestingly, leuprolide treatment significantly elevated serum levels of cardiac troponin I (cTn-I), a biomarker of cardiac injury, and sildenafil did not abolish this effect. We conclude that long-term ADT with leuprolide increases abdominal adiposity and cardiac injury biomarker without cardiac contractile dysfunction. Sildenafil did not prevent ADT-associated adverse changes.

Muc16 depletion diminishes KRAS-induced tumorigenesis and metastasis by altering tumor microenvironment factors in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma.

MUC16, membrane-bound mucin, plays an oncogenic role in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC). However, the pathological role of MUC16 in the PDAC progression, tumor microenvironment, and metastasis in cooperation with KrasG12D and Trp53R172H mutations remains unknown. Deletion of Muc16 with activating mutations KrasG12D/+ and Trp53R172H/+ in mice significantly decreased progression and prolonged overall survival in KrasG12D/+; Trp53R172H/+; Pdx-1-Cre; Muc16-/- (KPCM) and KrasG12D/+; Pdx-1-Cre; Muc16-/- (KCM), as compared to KrasG12D/+; Trp53R172H/+; Pdx-1-Cre (KPC) and KrasG12D/+; Pdx-1-Cre (KC) mice, respectively. Muc16 knockout pancreatic tumor (KPCM) displays decreased tumor microenvironment factors and significantly reduced incidence of liver and lung metastasis compared to KPC. Furthermore, in silico data analysis showed a positive correlation of MUC16 with activated stroma and metastasis-associated genes. KPCM mouse syngeneic cells had significantly lower metastatic and endothelial cell binding abilities than KPC cells. Similarly, KPCM organoids significantly decreased the growth rate compared to KPC organoids. Interestingly, RNA-seq data revealed that the cytoskeletal proteins Actg2, Myh11, and Pdlim3 were downregulated in KPCM tumors. Further knockdown of these genes showed reduced metastatic potential. Overall, our results demonstrate that Muc16 alters the tumor microenvironment factors during pancreatic cancer progression and metastasis by changing the expression of Actg2, Myh11, and Pdlim3 genes.

The Pleiotropic role, functions and targeted therapies of LIF/LIFR axis in cancer: Old spectacles with new insights.

The dysregulation of leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) and its cognate receptor (LIFR) has been associated with multiple cancer initiation, progression, and metastasis. LIF plays a significant tumor-promoting role in cancer, while LIFR functions as a tumor promoter and suppressor. Epithelial and stromal cells secrete LIF via autocrine and paracrine signaling mechanism(s) that bind with LIFR and subsequently with co-receptor glycoprotein 130 (gp130) to activate JAK/STAT1/3, PI3K/AKT, mTORC1/p70s6K, Hippo/YAP, and MAPK signaling pathways. Clinically, activating the LIF/LIFR axis is associated with poor survival and anti-cancer therapy resistance. This review article provides an overview of the structure and ligands of LIFR, LIF/LIFR signaling in developmental biology, stem cells, cancer stem cells, genetics and epigenetics of LIFR, LIFR regulation by long non-coding RNAs and miRNAs, and LIF/LIFR signaling in cancers. Finally, neutralizing antibodies and small molecule inhibitors preferentially blocking LIF interaction with LIFR and antagonists against LIFR under pre-clinical and early-phase pre-clinical trials were discussed.

DNA-gold nanoprobe-based integrated biosensing technology for non-invasive liquid biopsy of serum miRNA: A new frontier in prostate cancer diagnosis.

The low specificity of prostate-specific antigen contributes to overdiagnosis and ov ertreatment of prostate cancer (PCa) patients. Hence, there is an urgent need for inclusive diagnostic platforms that could improve the diagnostic accuracy of PCa. Dysregulated miRNAs are closely associated with the progression and recurrence and have emerged as promising diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers for PCa. Nevertheless, simple, rapid, and ultrasensitive quantification of serum miRNAs is highly challenging. This study designed, synthesized, and demonstrated the practicability of DNA-linked gold nanoprobes (DNA-AuNPs) for the single-step quantification of miR-21/miR-141/miR-375. In preclinical study, the assay differented PCa Pten conditional knockout (PtencKO) mice compared to their age-matched Pten wild-type (PtenWT) control mice. In human sera, receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve-based correlation analyses revealed clear discrimination between PCa patients from normal healthy controls using training and validation sets. Overall, we established integrated nano-biosensing technology for the PCR-free, non-invasive liquid biopsies of multiple miRNAs for PCa diagnosis.

MUC16 Promotes Liver Metastasis of Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma by Upregulating NRP2-Associated Cell Adhesion.

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is one of the most lethal types of cancer, as it commonly metastasizes to the liver resulting in an overall poor prognosis. However, the molecular mechanism involved in liver metastasis remains poorly understood. Here, we aimed to identify the MUC16-mediated molecular mechanism of PDAC-liver metastasis. Previous studies demonstrated that MUC16 and its C-terminal (Cter) domain are involved in the aggressiveness of PDAC. In this study, we observed MUC16 and its Cter expression significantly high in human PDAC tissues, PDAC organoids, and metastatic liver tissues, while no expression was observed in normal pancreatic tissues using IHC and immunofluorescence (IFC) analyses. MUC16 knockdown in SW1990 and CD18/HPAF PDAC cells significantly decreased the colony formation, migration, and endothelial/p-selectin binding. In contrast, MUC16-Cter ectopic overexpression showed significantly increased colony formation and motility in MiaPaCa2 pancreatic cancer cells. Interestingly, MUC16 promoted cell survival and colonization in the liver, mimicking an ex vivo environment. Furthermore, MUC16 enhanced liver metastasis in the in vivo mouse model. Our integrated analyses of RNA-sequencing suggested that MUC16 alters Neuropilin-2 (NRP2) and cell adhesion molecules in pancreatic cancer cells. Furthermore, we identified that MUC16 regulated NRP2 via JAK2/STAT1 signaling in PDAC. NRP2 knockdown in MUC16-overexpressed PDAC cells showed significantly decreased cell adhesion and migration. Overall, the findings indicate that MUC16 regulates NRP2 and induces metastasis in PDAC. IMPLICATIONS: This study shows that MUC16 plays a critical role in PDAC liver metastasis by mediating NRP2 regulation by JAK2/STAT1 axis, thereby paving the way for future therapy efforts for metastatic PDAC.

Macrophage inhibitory cytokine-1 in cancer: Beyond the cellular phenotype.

Despite technological advances in diagnostic abilities and improved treatment methods, the burden of cancers remains high, leading to significant morbidity and mortality. One primary reason is that cancer cell secretory factors modulate the tumor microenvironment, supporting tumor growth and circumvents anticancer activities of conventional therapies. Macrophage inhibitory cytokine-1 (MIC-1) is a pleiotropic cytokine elevated in various cancers. MIC-1 regulates various cancer hallmarks, including sustained proliferation, tumor-promoting inflammation, avoiding immune destruction, inducing invasion, metastasis, angiogenesis, and resisting cell death. Despite these facts, the molecular regulation and downstream signaling of MIC-1 in cancer remain elusive, partly because its receptor (GFRAL) was unknown until recently. Binding of MIC-1 to GFRAL recruits the coreceptor tyrosine kinase RET to execute its downstream signaling. So far, studies have shown that GFRAL expression is restricted to the brain stem and is responsible for MIC-1/GFRAL/RET-mediated metabolic disorders. Nevertheless, abundant levels of MIC-1 expression have been reported in all cancer types and have been proposed as a surrogate biomarker. Given the ubiquitous expression of MIC-1 in cancers, it is crucial to understand both upstream regulation and downstream MIC-1/GFRAL/RET signaling in cancer hallmark traits.

GDF15 promotes prostate cancer bone metastasis and colonization through osteoblastic CCL2 and RANKL activation.

Bone metastases occur in patients with advanced-stage prostate cancer (PCa). The cell-cell interaction between PCa and the bone microenvironment forms a vicious cycle that modulates the bone microenvironment, increases bone deformities, and drives tumor growth in the bone. However, the molecular mechanisms of PCa-mediated modulation of the bone microenvironment are complex and remain poorly defined. Here, we evaluated growth differentiation factor-15 (GDF15) function using in vivo preclinical PCa-bone metastasis mouse models and an in vitro bone cell coculture system. Our results suggest that PCa-secreted GDF15 promotes bone metastases and induces bone microarchitectural alterations in a preclinical xenograft model. Mechanistic studies revealed that GDF15 increases osteoblast function and facilitates the growth of PCa in bone by activating osteoclastogenesis through osteoblastic production of CCL2 and RANKL and recruitment of osteomacs. Altogether, our findings demonstrate the critical role of GDF15 in the modulation of the bone microenvironment and subsequent development of PCa bone metastasis.

Pathophysiological role of growth differentiation factor 15 (GDF15) in obesity, cancer, and cachexia.

Growth differentiation factor 15 or macrophage inhibitory cytokine-1 (GDF15/MIC-1) is a divergent member of the transforming growth factor ß superfamily and has a diverse pathophysiological roles in cancers, cardiometabolic disorders, and other diseases. GDF15 controls hematopoietic growth, energy homeostasis, adipose tissue metabolism, body growth, bone remodeling, and response to stress signals. The role of GDF15 in cancer development and progression is complicated and depends on the specific cancer type, stage, and tumor microenvironment. Recently, research on GDF15 and GDF15-associated signaling has accelerated due to the identification of the GDF15 receptor: glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) family receptor α-like (GFRAL). Therapeutic interventions to target GDF15 and/or GFRAL revealed the mechanisms that drive its activity and might improve overall outcomes of patients with metabolic disorders and cancer. This review highlights the structure and functions of GDF15 and its receptor, emphasizing the pleiotropic role of GDF15 in obesity, tumorigenesis, metastasis, immunomodulation, and cachexia.

Nuclear factor kappa-B contributes to cigarette smoke tolerance in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma through cysteine metabolism.

BACKGROUND: Retrospective studies revealed that cigarette smoking enhances risk of incidence and worsens prognosis in pancreatic cancer (PC) patients. Poor prognosis in smoker cohort of PC patients indicates prevalence of cigarette smoke stimulated survival mechanisms yet to be explored in PC. In this study, cigarette smoke induced metabolic pathways were explored and targeted in PC. METHODS: Human pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma cell (PDAC) lines, genetically engineered mice models (GEMMs), mass spectrometry based heavy isotope-based metabolite analysis, cytotoxicity assays and Nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-kB) targeting were utilized in this study. Cigarette smoke extract (CSE) was prepared fresh each day by bubbling cell culture media with the smoke emitted from 85 mm, filtered, Code 1R6F reference cigarettes and used for in vitro procedures. High dose cigarette smoke exposure of GEMMs was achieved by daily exposure of animals to similar cigarettes, 6 h/day for a total period of 180 days. FINDINGS: We observed that PDAC cells upregulate glutathione anabolism through cysteine uptake and glutamate cysteine ligase (GCLM), supporting survival, upon CSE exposure. In vivo, cigarette smoke exposure leads to concomitant upregulation of GCLM and activated NF-kB in the PDAC consistent with in vitro, in CSE-exposed PDAC. Finally, either inhibition of NF-kB or depletion of cysteine impaired PDAC cell survival in cigarette smoke exposed conditions through suppression of glutathione and ROS enhancement, reverted by glutathione supplementation. INTERPRETATION: Our findings demonstrate scope for targeting smoke induced, NF-kB mediated, cysteine and glutathione metabolism for improving the survival of smoke addicted PDAC.

SUMO Modification of PAF1/PD2 Enables PML Interaction and Promotes Radiation Resistance in Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma.

RNA polymerase II-associated factor 1 (PAF1)/pancreatic differentiation 2 (PD2) is a core subunit of the human PAF1 complex (PAF1C) that regulates the RNA polymerase II function during transcriptional elongation. PAF1/PD2 has also been linked to the oncogenesis of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC). Here, we report that PAF1/PD2 undergoes posttranslational modification (PTM) through SUMOylation, enhancing the radiation resistance of PDAC cells. We identified that PAF1/PD2 is preferentially modified by small ubiquitin-related modifier 1 (SUMO 1), and mutating the residues (K)-150 and 154 by site-directed mutagenesis reduces the SUMOylation. Interestingly, PAF1/PD2 was found to directly interact with the promyelocytic leukemia (PML) protein in response to radiation, and inhibition of PAF1/PD2 SUMOylation at K-150/154 affects its interaction with PML. Our results demonstrate that SUMOylation of PAF1/PD2 increased in the radiated pancreatic cancer cells. Furthermore, inhibition of SUMOylation or PML reduces the cell growth and proliferation of PDAC cells after radiation treatment. These results suggest that SUMOylation of PAF1/PD2 interacts with PTM for PDAC cell survival. Furthermore, abolishing the SUMOylation in PDAC cells enhances the effectiveness of radiotherapy. Overall, our results demonstrate a novel PTM and PAF1/PD2 interaction through SUMOylation, and inhibiting the SUMOylation of PAF1/PD2 enhance the therapeutic efficacy for PDAC.

Role of phosphodiesterase 1 in the pathophysiology of diseases and potential therapeutic opportunities.

Cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases (PDEs) are superfamily of enzymes that regulate the spatial and temporal relationship of second messenger signaling in the cellular system. Among the 11 different families of PDEs, phosphodiesterase 1 (PDE1) sub-family of enzymes hydrolyze both 3',5'-cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) and 3',5'-cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) in a mutually competitive manner. The catalytic activity of PDE1 is stimulated by their binding to Ca2+/calmodulin (CaM), resulting in the integration of Ca2+ and cyclic nucleotide-mediated signaling in various diseases. The PDE1 family includes three subtypes, PDE1A, PDE1B and PDE1C, which differ for their relative affinities for cAMP and cGMP. These isoforms are differentially expressed throughout the body, including the cardiovascular, central nervous system and other organs. Thus, PDE1 enzymes play a critical role in the pathophysiology of diseases through the fundamental regulation of cAMP and cGMP signaling. This comprehensive review provides the current research on PDE1 and its potential utility as a therapeutic target in diseases including the cardiovascular, pulmonary, metabolic, neurocognitive, renal, cancers and possibly others.

Neutrophil Gelatinase-Associated Lipocalin Protects Acinar Cells From Cerulein-Induced Damage During Acute Pancreatitis.

OBJECTIVES: Elevated neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) is a promising marker for severe acute pancreatitis (SAP) and multiple organ failure, suggesting systemic and local contributions during pancreatitis. We investigated the role of NGAL locally on acinar cell biology. METHODS: Western blot, reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction, and immunohistochemistry analysis were performed to analyze the levels of NGAL receptors, apoptotic and regeneration markers, and 4-hydroxynonenal (4HNE) levels, 3-[4,5-Dimethylthiazole-2-yl]-2, 5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide assay, and annexin V/propidium iodide staining were used to evaluate cell viability, and effect on endothelial cells was accessed by endothelial permeability assay. RESULTS: Cerulein treatment at 20 µM for 12 hours significantly reduced acinar cell viability by 40%, which was rescued by NGAL at 800 and 1600 ng/mL concentrations, observed during mild and SAP, respectively. Mechanistically, NGAL significantly reduced the levels of reactive oxygen species and 4HNE adduct formation in a 24p3R-dependent manner and upregulated the expression of acinar cell regeneration markers, like CDK-2, CDK-4, and C-myc. However, SAP levels of NGAL significantly increased endothelial permeability and downregulated the levels of ZO-1, and cerulein treatment in NGAL knockout mice showed increased levels of 4HNE adducts. CONCLUSIONS: Neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin rescues intracellular reactive oxygen species during pancreatitis and promotes survival and regeneration of acinar cells.

Sildenafil Potentiates the Therapeutic Efficacy of Docetaxel in Advanced Prostate Cancer by Stimulating NO-cGMP Signaling.

PURPOSE: Docetaxel plays an indispensable role in the management of advanced prostate cancer. However, more than half of patients do not respond to docetaxel, and those good responders frequently experience significant cumulative toxicity, which limits its dose duration and intensity. Hence, a second agent that could increase the initial efficacy of docetaxel and maintain tolerability at biologically effective doses may improve outcomes for patients. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: We determined phosphodiesterase 5 (PDE5) expression levels in human and genetically engineered mouse (GEM) prostate tissues and tumor-derived cell lines. Furthermore, we investigated the therapeutic benefits and underlying mechanism of PDE5 inhibitor sildenafil in combination with docetaxel using in vitro, Pten conditional knockout (cKO), derived tumoroid and xenograft prostate cancer models. RESULTS: PDE5 expression was higher in both human and mouse prostate tumors and cancer cell lines compared with normal tissues/cells. In GEM prostate-derived cell lines, PDE5 expression increased from normal prostate (wild-type) epithelial cells to androgen-dependent and castrated prostate-derived cell lines. The addition of physiologically achievable concentrations of sildenafil enhanced docetaxel-induced prostate cancer cell growth inhibition and apoptosis in vitro, reduced murine 3D tumoroid growth, and in vivo tumorigenicity as compared with docetaxel alone. Furthermore, sildenafil enhanced docetaxel-induced NO and cGMP levels thereby augmenting antitumor activity. CONCLUSIONS: Our results demonstrate that sildenafil's addition could sensitize docetaxel chemotherapy in prostate cancer cells at much lesser concentration than needed for inducing cell death. Thus, the combinatorial treatment of sildenafil and docetaxel may improve anticancer efficacy and reduce chemotherapy-induced side-effects among patients with advanced prostate cancer.

Acinar transformed ductal cells exhibit differential mucin expression in a tamoxifen-induced pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma mouse model.

Pancreatic cancer (PC) is acquired postnatally; to mimic this scenario, we developed an inducible KrasG12D; Ptf1a-CreER™ (iKC) mouse model, in which Kras is activated postnatally at week 16 upon tamoxifen (TAM) administration. Upon TAM treatment, iKC mice develop pancreatic intraepithelial neoplasia (PanIN) lesions and PC with metastasis at the fourth and fortieth weeks, respectively, and exhibited acinar-to-ductal metaplasia (ADM) and transdifferentiation. Kras activation upregulated the transcription factors Ncoa3, p-cJun and FoxM1, which in turn upregulated expression of transmembrane mucins (Muc1, Muc4 and Muc16) and secretory mucin (Muc5Ac). Interestingly, knockdown of KrasG12D in multiple PC cell lines resulted in downregulation of MUC1, MUC4, MUC5AC and MUC16. In addition, iKC mice exhibited ADM and transdifferentiation. Our results show that the iKC mouse more closely mimics human PC development and can be used to investigate pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) biomarkers, early onset of PDAC, and ADM. The iKC model can also be used for preclinical strategies such as targeting mucin axis alone or in combination with neo-adjuvant, immunotherapeutic approaches and to monitor chemotherapy response.

Cardiovascular risks and toxicity - The Achilles heel of androgen deprivation therapy in prostate cancer patients.

Androgen deprivation therapy (ADT) is the primary systemic therapy for treating locally advanced or metastatic prostate cancer (PCa). Despite its positive effect on PCa patient survival, ADT causes various adverse effects, including increased cardiovascular risk factors and cardiotoxicity. Lifespans extension, early use of ADT, and second-line treatment with next-generation androgen receptor pathway inhibitors would further extend the duration of ADT and possibly increase the risk of ADT-induced cardiotoxicity. Meanwhile, information on the molecular mechanisms underlying ADT-induced cardiotoxicity and measures to prevent it is limited, mainly due to the lack of specifically designed preclinical studies and clinical trials. This review article compiles up-to-date evidence obtained from observational studies and clinical trials, in order to gain new insights for deciphering the association between ADT use and cardiotoxicity. In addition, potential cardioprotective strategies involving GnRH receptors and second messenger cGMP are discussed.

FDPS cooperates with PTEN loss to promote prostate cancer progression through modulation of small GTPases/AKT axis.

Farnesyl diphosphate synthase (FDPS), a mevalonate pathway enzyme, is highly expressed in several cancers, including prostate cancer (PCa). To date, the mechanistic, functional, and clinical significance of FDPS in cancer remains unexplored. We evaluated the FDPS expression and its cancer-associated phenotypes using in vitro and in vivo methods in PTEN-deficient and sufficient human and mouse PCa cells and tumors. Interestingly, FDPS overexpression synergizes with PTEN deficiency in PTEN conditionally knockout mice (P < 0.05) and expressed significantly higher in human (P < 0.001) PCa tissues, cell lines, and murine tumoroids compared to respective controls. In silico analysis revealed that FDPS is associated with increasing Gleason score, PTEN functionally deficient status, and poor survival of PCa. Ectopic overexpression of FDPS promotes oncogenic phenotypes such as colony formation (P < 0.01) and proliferation (P < 0.01) through activation of AKT and ERK signaling by prenylating Rho A, Rho G, and CDC42 small GTPases. Of interest, knockdown of FDPS in PCa cells exhibits decreased colony growth and proliferation (P < 0.001) by modulating AKT and ERK pathways. Further, genetic and pharmacological inhibition of PI3K but not AKT reduced FDPS expression. Pharmacological targeting of FDPS by zoledronic acid (ZOL), which is already in clinics, exhibit reduced growth and clonogenicity of human and murine PCa cells (P < 0.01) and 3D tumoroids (P < 0.02) by disrupting AKT and ERK signaling through direct interference of small GTPases protein prenylation. Thus, FDPS plays an oncogenic role in PTEN-deficient PCa through GTPase/AKT axis. Identifying mevalonate pathway proteins could serve as a therapeutic target in PTEN dysregulated tumors.

Immunometabolic Alterations by HPV Infection: New Dimensions to Head and Neck Cancer Disparity.

Head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) is the sixth most common cancer, with high morbidity and mortality. Racial disparity in HNSCC is observed between African Americans (AAs) and whites, effecting both overall and 5-year survival, with worse prognosis for AAs. In addition to socio-economic status and demographic factors, many epidemiological studies have also identified factors including coexisting human papillomavirus (HPV) infection, primary tumor location, and a variety of somatic mutations that contribute to the prognostic incongruities in HNSCC patients among AAs and whites. Recent research also suggests HPV-induced dysregulation of tumor metabolism and immune microenvironment as the major regulators of HNSCC patient prognosis. Outcomes of several preclinical and clinical studies on targeted therapeutics warrant the need to elucidate the inherent mechanistic and population-based disparities underlying patient responses. This review systematically reports the underlying reasons for inconsistency in disease prognosis and therapy responses among HNSCC patients from different racial populations. The focus of this review is twofold: aside from discussing the causes of racial disparity, we also seek to identify the consequences of such disparity in terms of HPV infection and its associated mutational, metabolic, and immune landscapes. Considering the clinical impact of differential patient outcomes among AA and white populations, understanding the underlying cause of this disparity may pave the way for novel precision therapy for HNSCC.

MUC16 contributes to the metastasis of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma through focal adhesion mediated signaling mechanism.

MUC16, a heavily glycosylated type-I transmembrane mucin is overexpressed in several cancers including pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC). Previously, we have shown that MUC16 is significantly overexpressed in human PDAC tissues. However, the functional consequences and its role in PDAC is poorly understood. Here, we show that MUC16 knockdown decreases PDAC cell proliferation, colony formation and migration in vitro. Also, MUC16 knockdown decreases the tumor formation and metastasis in orthotopic xenograft mouse model. Mechanistically, immunoprecipitation and immunofluorescence analyses confirms MUC16 interaction with galectin-3 and mesothelin in PDAC cells. Adhesion assay displayed decreased cell attachment of MUC16 knockdown cells with recombinant galectin-1 and galectin-3 protein. Further, CRISPR/Cas9-mediated MUC16 knockout cells show decreased tumor-associated carbohydrate antigens (T and Tn) in PDAC cells. Importantly, carbohydrate antigens were decreased in the region that corresponds to MUC16 and suggests for the decreased MUC16-galectin interactions. Co-immunoprecipitation also revealed a novel interaction between MUC16 and FAK in PDAC cells. Interestingly, we observed decreased expression of mesenchymal and increased expression of epithelial markers in MUC16-silenced cells. Additionally, MUC16 loss showed a decreased FAK-mediated Akt and ERK/MAPK activation. Altogether, these findings suggest that MUC16-focal adhesion signaling may play a critical role in facilitating PDAC growth and metastasis.