The endoplasmic reticulum kinase PERK interacts with the oxidoreductase ERO1 to metabolically adapt mitochondria.

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) homeostasis requires molecular regulators that tailor mitochondrial bioenergetics to the needs of protein folding. For instance, calnexin maintains mitochondria metabolism and mitochondria-ER contacts (MERCs) through reactive oxygen species (ROS) from NADPH oxidase 4 (NOX4). However, induction of ER stress requires a quick molecular rewiring of mitochondria to adapt to new energy needs. This machinery is not characterized. We now show that the oxidoreductase ERO1⍺ covalently interacts with protein kinase RNA-like ER kinase (PERK) upon treatment with tunicamycin. The PERK-ERO1⍺ interaction requires the C-terminal active site of ERO1⍺ and cysteine 216 of PERK. Moreover, we show that the PERK-ERO1⍺ complex promotes oxidization of MERC proteins and controls mitochondrial dynamics. Using proteinaceous probes, we determined that these functions improve ER-mitochondria Ca2+ flux to maintain bioenergetics in both organelles, while limiting oxidative stress. Therefore, the PERK-ERO1⍺ complex is a key molecular machinery that allows quick metabolic adaptation to ER stress.

A genetically encoded fluorescent biosensor for extracellular L-lactate.

L-Lactate, traditionally considered a metabolic waste product, is increasingly recognized as an important intercellular energy currency in mammals. To enable investigations of the emerging roles of intercellular shuttling of L-lactate, we now report an intensiometric green fluorescent genetically encoded biosensor for extracellular L-lactate. This biosensor, designated eLACCO1.1, enables cellular resolution imaging of extracellular L-lactate in cultured mammalian cells and brain tissue.

Genetically Encoded Fluorescent Probe for Imaging Apoptosis in Vivo with Spontaneous GFP Complementation.

Apoptosis plays a pivotal role in development and tissue homeostasis in multicellular organisms. Dysfunction of apoptosis is involved in many fatal diseases such as cancer. Visualization of apoptosis in living animals is necessary to understand the mechanism of apoptosis-related diseases. Here, we describe a genetically encoded fluorescent probe for imaging apoptosis in living multicellular organisms, based on spontaneous complementation of two fragments of a green fluorescent protein (GFP) variant (GFP OPT). The probe is designed for detection of mitochondria-mediated apoptosis during which a mitochondrial protein of Smac is released into cytosol. The Smac is connected with a carboxy-terminal fragment of GFP OPT (GFP11), whereas the remainder of GFP OPT (GFP(1-10)) is located in the cytosol. Under an apoptotic condition, the Smac is released from mitochondria into cytosol, allowing complementation of the GFP-OPT fragments and the emission of fluorescence. Live-cell imaging demonstrates that the probe enables detection of apoptosis in living cells with a high signal-to-background ratio. We applied the probe to living zebrafish, in which apoptotic cells were visualized with fluorescence. The technique provides a useful tool for the study of apoptosis in living animals, facilitating elucidation of the mechanisms of apoptosis-related diseases.

A new cell-based assay to evaluate myogenesis in mouse myoblast C2C12 cells.

The development of the efficient screening system of detecting compounds that promote myogenesis and prevent muscle atrophy is important. Mouse C2C12 cells are widely used to evaluate myogenesis but the procedures of the assay are not simple and the quantification is not easy. We established C2C12 cells expressing the N-terminal green fluorescence protein (GFP) and the C-terminal GFP (GFP1-10 and GFP11 cells). GFP1-10 and GFP11 cells do not exhibit GFP signals until they are fused. The signal intensity correlates with the expression of myogenic markers and myofusion. Myogenesis-promoting reagents, such as insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF1) and ß-guanidinopropionic acid (GPA), enhance the signals, whereas the poly-caspase inhibitor, z-VAD-FMK, suppresses it. GFP signals are observed when myotubes formed by GFP1-10 cells are fused with single nuclear GFP11 cells, and enhanced by IGF1, GPA, and IBS008738, a recently-reported myogenesis-promoting reagent. Fusion between myotubes formed by GFP1-10 and GFP11 cells is associated with the appearance of GFP signals. IGF1 and GPA augment these signals, whereas NSC23766, Rac inhibitor, decreases them. The conditioned medium of cancer cells suppresses GFP signals during myogenesis and reduces the width of GFP-positive myotubes after differentiation. Thus the novel split GFP-based assay will provide the useful method for the study of myogenesis, myofusion, and atrophy.

Bioluminescent probes to analyze ligand-induced phosphatidylinositol 3,4,5-trisphosphate production with split luciferase complementation.

A lipid second messenger, phosphatidylinositol (3,4,5)-trisphosphate (PIP3), is a signaling molecule that mediates central cellular events, such as growth, motility, and development by activating downstream proteins. Although functions of various PIP3 binding partners have been unveiled, the various roles of PIP3 have not been resolved thoroughly because of limitations of PIP3 analysis. Herein, we describe a novel method for the analysis of relative PIP3 amount based on spontaneous complementation of split luciferase fragments. An N-terminal fragment of a luciferase was located on the plasma membrane (LucN-pm). A C-terminal fragment of a luciferase fused with PIP3 binding units, pleckstrin homology domains (PHDs) of the general receptor for phosphoinositides 1 (GRP1), was expressed in cytosol (PP-LucC). In response to PIP3 production, PP-LucC was brought to the plasma membrane and colocalized with LucN-pm. The LucN-pm and PP-LucC reconstituted spontaneously to form an active luciferase, producing bioluminescence recovery. We obtained bioluminescence signals corresponding to relative PIP3 amounts successfully upon stimulation with an agonist. We also demonstrated that the probes were applied for a high-throughput screening format and for monitoring of PIP3 production on the plasma membrane by bioluminescence. This method enables further study of PIP3 and supports versatile applications related to the PIP3 amount.