Outcomes from hematopoietic stem cell transplantation following treosulfan-based conditioning: A clinical and pharmacokinetic analysis.

BACKGROUND: The aims of this study are to report our experience with treosulfan-based conditioning regimens for patients with non-malignant hematologic conditions, correlating clinical outcomes at different time points post-transplant with treosulfan exposure (AUC). METHODS: This study was a single-center observational study investigating overall survival (OS), disease-free survival (DFS), and event-free survival (EFS) end-points post-transplant. The consequences of treosulfan AUC with respect to toxicity, correction of underlying disease, and long-term chimerism were also explored using pharmacokinetic analysis. RESULTS: Forty-six patients received 49 transplants with treosulfan and fludarabine-based conditioning between 2005 and 2023. Twenty-four patients also received thiotepa. Donor chimerism was assessed on either whole blood or sorted cell lines at different time points post-transplant. Thirty-nine patients received treosulfan pharmacokinetic assessment to evaluate cumulative AUC, with five infants receiving real-time assessment to facilitate daily dose adjustment. OS, DFS, and EFS were 87%, 81%, and 69%, respectively. Median follow-up was 32.1 months (range 0.82-160 months) following transplant. Lower EFS was associated with patient age (<1 year; p = .057) and lower cumulative treosulfan dose (<42 g/m2; p = .003). Stable donor chimerism in B-cell, NK-cell, and granulocyte lineages at 1-year post-transplant were more prevalent in patients receiving thiotepa conditioning. Two infants required daily dose adjustment to treosulfan to avoid high AUC. CONCLUSIONS: Excellent clinical outcomes and stable chimerism were observed in this patient series. The addition of thiotepa conferred no significant toxicity and trended toward sustained ongoing donor engraftment. Correlating treosulfan AUC with long-term patient outcomes is required.

Validation of a liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method for simultaneous quantification of N,N-dimethylacetamide and N-monomethylacetamide in pediatric plasma.

N,N-dimethylacetamide is an excipient used in intravenous busulfan formulations, a drug used in hematopoietic stem cell transplantation conditioning. The aim of this study was to develop and validate a liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method for simultaneous quantification of N,N-dimethylacetamide, and its metabolite N-monomethylacetamide in plasma from children receiving busulfan. A 4 µl aliquot of patient plasma was extracted using 196 µl 50% methanol solution and quantified against calibrators prepared in the extraction solvent given negligible matrix effects across three concentrations. 9 [H2 ]-N,N-dimethylacetamide was used as an internal standard. Separation of N,N-dimethylacetamide and N-monomethylacetamide was achieved using a Kinetex EVO C18 stationary phase (100 mm × 2.1 mm × 2.6 µm) running an isocratic mobile phase of 30% methanol containing 0.1% formic acid at a flow of 0.2 ml/min over 3.0 min. The injection volume was 1 µl. Calibration curves for N,N-dimethylacetamide and N-monomethylacetamide were linear up to 1200 and 200 µg/L, respectively, with a lower limit of quantification 1 µg/L for both analytes. Calibrator accuracy and precision were within ± 10% of the test parameters across four concentration levels. Analytes were stable over 14 days at three different storage conditions. This method was successfully applied to measure N,N-dimethylacetamide and N-monomethylacetamide concentrations in a total of 1265 plasma samples from 77 children.

Evaluation of treosulfan cumulative exposure in paediatric patients through population pharmacokinetics and dosing simulations.

AIM: To investigate the pharmacokinetics (PK) of intravenous treosulfan in paediatric patients undergoing haematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) for a broad range of diseases and to explore the impact of different dosing regimens on treosulfan exposure (area under the concentration-time curve, AUC0→∞ ) through dosing simulations. METHODS: A prospective multicentre PK study was conducted using treosulfan concentration data (n = 423) collected from 53 children (median age 3.5, range 0.2-17.0 years) receiving three daily age-guided doses (10-14 g/m2 ). Population PK modelling was performed using NONMEM software, utilising a stepwise forward selection backward elimination method and likelihood-ratio test for screening covariates to describe PK variability. Monte Carlo simulation was used to generate patient PK data for 10 000 virtual paediatric patients and cumulative AUC0→∞ values were evaluated using age, body surface area (BSA) and model-based dosing regimens, targeting 4800 mg*h/L. RESULTS: Treosulfan concentration data were described using a one-compartment PK model with first-order elimination. Population mean (95% CI) estimates for clearance (CL) and volume of distribution (V) were 16.3 (14.9-18.1) L/h and 41.9 (38.8-45.1) L, respectively. Allometrically scaled body weight was the best covariate descriptor for CL and V, and maturational age further explained variability in CL. Dosing simulations indicated that in young patient groups (<2 years), a model-based dosing regimen more accurately achieved the target AUC0→∞ (58.3%) over the age (42.6%) and BSA-based (51.3%) regimens. CONCLUSION: Treosulfan disposition was described through allometric body weight and maturational age descriptors. Model-informed dosing is recommended for patients under 2 years. Treosulfan PK parameters and AUC0→∞ were not influenced by patient disease.

Association Between the Magnitude of Intravenous Busulfan Exposure and Development of Hepatic Veno-Occlusive Disease in Children and Young Adults Undergoing Myeloablative Allogeneic Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation.

Intravenous busulfan is widely used as part of myeloablative conditioning regimens in children and young adults undergoing allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation (HCT). Hepatic veno-occlusive disease/sinusoidal obstruction syndrome (VOD/SOS) is a serious clinical problem observed with busulfan-based conditioning HCT. The development of VOD/SOS may be associated with busulfan exposure. Getting more insight into the association between busulfan exposure and the development of VOD/SOS enables further optimization of dosing and treatment strategies. The objective of this study was to assess the association between the magnitude of busulfan exposure and the occurrence of VOD/SOS in children and young adults undergoing myeloablative conditioning with a busulfan-containing regimen before allogeneic HCT. In this observational study we included all patients who underwent allogeneic HCT with intravenous busulfan as part of the conditioning regimen at 15 pediatric transplantation centers between 2000 and 2015. The endpoint was the development of VOD/SOS. The magnitude of busulfan exposure was estimated using nonlinear mixed effect modeling and expressed as the maximal concentration (Cmax; day 1 and day 1 to 4 Cmax), cumulative area under the curve (AUC; day 1, highest 1-day AUC in 4 days, and 4-day cumulative AUC), cumulative time above a concentration of 300 µg/L, and clearance on day 1. A total of 88 out of 697 patients (12.6%) developed VOD/SOS. The number of alkylators in the conditioning regimen was a strong effect modifier; therefore we stratified the regression analysis for the number of alkylators. For patients receiving only busulfan as one alkylator (36.3%, n = 253), cumulative busulfan exposure (>78 mg × h/L) was associated with increased VOD/SOS risk (12.6% versus 4.7%; odds ratio [OR] = 2.95, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.13 to 7.66). For individuals receiving busulfan with one or two additional alkylators (63.7%, n = 444), cumulative busulfan exposure (≤78 and >78 mg × h/L) did not further increase the risk of VOD/SOS (15.4% versus 15.2%; OR = 1.03, 95% CI 0.61 to 1.75). The effect of the magnitude of busulfan exposure on VOD/SOS risk in children and young adults undergoing HCT is dependent on the number of alkylators. In patients receiving busulfan as the only alkylator, higher cumulative busulfan exposure increased the risk of VOD/SOS, whereas in those receiving multiple alkylators, the magnitude of busulfan exposure did not further increase this risk.

Impact of Antibodies Against Polyethylene Glycol on the Pharmacokinetics of PEGylated Asparaginase in Children with Acute Lymphoblastic Leukaemia: A Population Pharmacokinetic Approach.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Besides allergic reactions, antibodies against polyethylene glycol (PEG) have been associated with reduced PEG-asparaginase (PEG-ASNase) activity. Population pharmacokinetics (popPK) allow for an in-depth investigation of the influence of anti-PEG antibodies on PEG-ASNase pharmacokinetics. METHODS: PEG-ASNase activity (6261 samples) and anti-PEG antibodies (2082/6412 samples prior to/post administration) in 1444 children with acute lymphoblastic leukaemia treated in the AIEOP-BFM ALL 2009 trial were evaluated. Patients received two doses of PEG-ASNase during induction (2500 U/m2, intravenous, biweekly) and a third dose during reinduction treatment. Anti-PEG IgG and IgM measured prior to and post administration were explored for their influence on the initial clearance of PEG-ASNase using a previously established popPK model. Categorical and continuous antibody data, including each isotype individually as well as in combination, were assessed. RESULTS: High pre-existing levels of anti-PEG antibodies increase the initial drug clearance. Analysed separately, both anti-PEG IgGprior and IgMprior were significant covariates; the stronger effect was observed for anti-PEG IgMprior. Hockey stick models best described the data. For anti-PEG IgMprior, each additional log unit above the estimated cut point was related to a 41.4% increase in initial clearance after the first dose in induction. Antibody levels below the cut point were not associated with an effect on clearance. The combination of both isotypes did not provide additional information compared to anti-PEG IgMprior alone. Antibody levels post administration were not associated with an effect on clearance. CONCLUSION: Pre-existing antibodies against PEG-ASNase significantly increased the initial clearance in a subgroup of patients showing high antibody levels. (Trial registration: EU clinical trials register; EudraCT No: 2007-004270-43; first registered 23 October 2009.).

Precision dosing of intravenous busulfan in pediatric hematopoietic stem cell transplantation: Results from a multicenter population pharmacokinetic study.

Busulfan (Bu) is a common component of conditioning regimens before hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) and is known for high interpatient pharmacokinetic (PK) variability. This study aimed to develop and externally validate a multicentric, population PK (PopPK) model for intravenous Bu in pediatric patients before HSCT to first study the influence of glutathione-s-transferase A1 (GSTA1) polymorphisms on Bu's PK in a large multicentric pediatric population while accounting for fludarabine (Flu) coadministration and, second, to establish an individualized, model-based, first-dose recommendation for intravenous Bu that can be widely used in pediatric patients. The model was built using data from 302 patients from five transplantation centers who received a Bu-based conditioning regimen. External model validation used data from 100 patients. The relationship between body weight and Bu clearance (CL) was best described by an age-dependent allometric scaling of a body weight model. A stepwise covariate analysis identified Day 1 of Bu conditioning, GSTA1 metabolic groups based on GSTA1 polymorphisms, and Flu coadministration as significant covariates influencing Bu CL. The final model adequately predicted Bu first-dose CL in the external cohort, with 81% of predicted area under the curves within the therapeutic window. The final model showed minimal bias (mean prediction error, -0.5%; 95% confidence interval [CI], -3.1% to 2.0%) and acceptable precision (mean absolute prediction error percentage, 18.7%; 95% CI, 17.0%-20.5%) in Bu CL prediction for dosing. This multicentric PopPK study confirmed the influence of GSTA1 polymorphisms and Flu coadministration on Bu CL. The developed model accurately predicted Bu CL and first doses in an external cohort of pediatric patients.

Alectinib is effective, safe and tolerable in an adolescent with stage IVB ALK-rearranged adenocarcinoma of the lung.

Anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK) inhibitors such as crizotinib and alectinib have been shown to have significant activity in ALK-rearranged non-small cell lung cancers (NSCLC). There are no data for alectinib's safety or efficacy in younger patients, though it is superior to crizotinib in adult trials. We present a 14-year old girl diagnosed with stage IV-B ALK-positive adenocarcinoma of the lung after presenting with cough and fever. She was commenced on alectinib at adult dose and has had sustained complete metabolic remission for 9 months. She is the youngest patient with lung adenocarcinoma to be treated with alectinib.

Association of busulfan exposure with survival and toxicity after haemopoietic cell transplantation in children and young adults: a multicentre, retrospective cohort analysis.

BACKGROUND: Intravenous busulfan combined with therapeutic drug monitoring to guide dosing improves outcomes after allogeneic haemopoietic cell transplantation (HCT). The best method to estimate busulfan exposure and optimum exposure in children or young adults remains unclear. We therefore assessed three approaches to estimate intravenous busulfan exposure (expressed as cumulative area under the curve [AUC]) and associated busulfan AUC with clinical outcomes in children or young adults undergoing allogeneic HCT. METHODS: In this retrospective analysis, patients from 15 centres in the Netherlands, USA, Canada, Switzerland, UK, Italy, Germany, and Australia who received a busulfan-based conditioning regimen between March 18, 2001, and Feb 12, 2015, were included. Cumulative AUC was calculated by numerical integration using non-linear mixed effect modelling (AUCNONMEM), non-compartmental analysis (AUC from 0 to infinity [AUC0-∞] and to the next dose [AUC0-τ]), and by individual centres using various approaches (AUCcentre). The main outcome of interest was event-free survival. Other outcomes of interest were graft failure or relapse, or both; transplantation-related mortality; acute toxicity (veno-occlusive disease or acute graft versus-host disease [GvHD]); chronic GvHD; overall survival; and chronic-GvHD-free event-free survival. We used propensity-score-adjusted Cox proportional hazard models, Weibull models, and Fine-Gray competing risk regressions for statistical analyses. FINDINGS: 790 patients were enrolled, 674 of whom were included: 274 (41%) with malignant and 400 (59%) with non-malignant disease. Median age was 4·5 years (IQR 1·4-10·7). The median busulfan AUCNONMEM was 74·4 mg × h/L (95% CI 31·1-104·6), which correlated with the standardised method AUC0-∞ (r2=0·74), but the latter correlated poorly with AUCcentre (r2=0·35). Estimated 2-year event-free survival was 69·7% (95% CI 66·2-73·0). Event-free survival at 2 years was 77·0% (95% CI 72·1-82·9) in the 257 patients with an optimum intravenous busulfan AUC of 78-101 mg × h/L compared with 66·1% (60·9-71·4) in the 235 patients at the low historical target of 58-86 mg × h/L and 49·5% (29·2-66·0) in the 44 patients with a high (>101 mg × h/L) busulfan AUC (p=0·011). Compared with the low AUC group, graft failure or relapse occurred less frequently in the optimum AUC group (hazard ratio [HR] 0·57, 95% CI 0·39-0·84; p=0·0041). Acute toxicity (HR 1·69, 1·12-2·57; p=0·013) and transplantation-related mortality (2·99, 1·82-4·92; p<0·0001) were significantly higher in the high AUC group (>101 mg × h/L) than in the low AUC group (<78 mg × h/L), independent of indication; no difference was noted between AUC groups for chronic GvHD (<78 mg × h/L vs ≥78 mg × h/L, HR 1·30, 95% CI 0·73-2·33; p=0·37). INTERPRETATION: Improved clinical outcomes are likely to be achieved by targeting the busulfan AUC to 78-101 mg × h/L using a new validated pharmacokinetic model for all indications. FUNDING: Research Allocation Program and the UCSF Helen Friller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center and the Mt Zion Health Fund of the University of California, San Francisco.

High melphalan exposure is associated with improved overall survival in myeloma patients receiving high dose melphalan and autologous transplantation.

AIM: High dose melphalan (HDM) and autologous stem cell transplantation (ASCT) retains a central role in the treatment of myeloma. The aim of this study was to determine whether HDM exposure (area under the concentration vs. time curve, AUC), is significantly associated with transplant outcomes. METHODS: Melphalan concentrations were measured in six to 11 plasma samples collected after HDM (median 192 mg m(-) (2) ) to determine melphalan AUC for a total of 114 patients. Binary logistic regression was used to assess whether melphalan AUC was associated with severe (≥ grade 3) oral mucositis. Multivariate Cox regression was used to assess whether melphalan AUC was significantly associated with time to progression, progression-free survival and overall survival (OS). RESULTS: Melphalan AUC ranged from 4.9 to 24.6 mg l(-1)  h, median 12.84 mg l(-1) h. Melphalan AUC above the median was a risk factor for severe mucositis (HR 1.21, 95% CI 1.06, 1.38, P = 0.004) but was also associated with significantly improved overall survival (OS) (HR 0.40, 95% CI 0.20, 0.81, P = 0.001), with an estimated median survival of 8.50 years vs. 5.38 years for high vs. low AUC groups. Multivariate analysis did not identify melphalan AUC as being significantly associated with time to progression or progression-free survival. CONCLUSIONS: This large scale pharmacodynamic analysis of HDM demonstrates that high melphalan exposure is associated with improved survival, with an acceptable increase in transplant toxicity. These results suggest studies targeting a higher AUC are warranted in patients undergoing HDM and ASCT for myeloma.

Development and Validation of a High Pressure Liquid Chromatography-UV Method for the Determination of Treosulfan and Its Epoxy Metabolites in Human Plasma and Its Application in Pharmacokinetic Studies.

Treosulfan (l-threitol-1,4-di-methanesulfonate) is a prodrug of a bifunctional alkylating agent that is being used increasingly in pediatric bone marrow transplantation regimens. The activation pathway is a complex reaction, which consists of two consecutive reactions leading to epoxybutane derivatives which are responsible for DNA alkylation. A simple, sensitive high performance liquid chromatography method for the determination of the sum of treosulfan and its epoxy metabolites by UV detection after derivatization with sodium diethyldithiocarbamate in human plasma was developed and validated. Plasma samples containing treosulfan and epoxy metabolites were converted into thiocarbamate derivative with 10% sodium diethyldithiocarbamate. Dinitrobiphenyl was used as an internal standard. The analysis was carried out using a reversed phase C18 column with a mobile phase consisting of methanol-water (65:35, v/v) at a flow rate of 1 mL/min. The eluent was monitored at 254 nm. The standard calibration curve was established between 2.5 and 50 µg/mL, with a correlation coefficient of 0.9987. Intra- and interday precision and accuracy of the method was <8% and met the analytical criteria. Pharmacokinetic parameters were determined in six children who received intravenous treosulfan (dose range 12-24 g/m(2)) in combination with fludarabine prior to blood or marrow transplantation.

Body weight-dependent pharmacokinetics of busulfan in paediatric haematopoietic stem cell transplantation patients: towards individualized dosing.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: The wide variability in pharmacokinetics of busulfan in children is one factor influencing outcomes such as toxicity and event-free survival. A meta-analysis was conducted to describe the pharmacokinetics of busulfan in patients from 0.1 to 26 years of age, elucidate patient characteristics that explain the variability in exposure between patients and optimize dosing accordingly. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Data were collected from 245 consecutive patients (from 3 to 100 kg) who underwent haematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) in four participating centres. The inter-patient, inter-occasion and residual variability in the pharmacokinetics of busulfan were estimated with a population analysis using the nonlinear mixed-effects modelling software NONMEM VI. Covariates were selected on the basis of their known or theoretical relationships with busulfan pharmacokinetics and were plotted independently against the individual pharmacokinetic parameters and the weighted residuals of the model without covariates to visualize relations. Potential covariates were formally tested in the model. RESULTS: In a two-compartment model, body weight was the most predictive covariate for clearance, volume of distribution and inter-compartmental clearance and explained 65%, 75% and 40% of the observed variability, respectively. The relationship between body weight and clearance was characterized best using an allometric equation with a scaling exponent that changed with body weight from 1.2 in neonates to 0.55 in young adults. This implies that an increase in body weight in neonates results in a larger increase in busulfan clearance than an increase in body weight in older children or adults. Clearance on the first day was 12% higher than that of subsequent days (p < 0.001). Inter-occasion variability on clearance was 15% between the 4 days. Based on the final pharmacokinetic-model, an individualized dosing nomogram was developed. CONCLUSIONS: The model-based individual dosing nomogram is expected to result in predictive busulfan exposures in patients ranging between 3 and 65 kg and thereby to a safer and more effective conditioning regimen for HSCT in children.

Population pharmacokinetics of mycophenolic acid in children and young people undergoing blood or marrow and solid organ transplantation.

AIMS: To characterize the population pharmacokinetics of mycophenolic acid (MPA) and evaluate dose regimens using a simulation approach and accepted therapeutic drug monitoring targets in children and young people undergoing blood or marrow, kidney and liver transplantation. METHODS: MPA concentration-time data were collected using an age specific sampling protocol over 12h. Some patients provided randomly timed but accurately recorded blood samples. Total and unbound MPA were measured by HPLC. NONMEM was employed to analyze MPA pharmacokinetic data. Simulations (n= 1000) were conducted to assess the suitability of the MPA dose regimens to maintain total MPA AUC(0,12h) within the range 30 and 60mg l(-1) h associated with optimal outcome. RESULTS: A two-compartment pharmacokinetic model with first-order elimination best described MPA concentration-time data. Population mean estimates of MPA clearance, inter-compartmental clearance, volumes of distribution in the central and peripheral compartments, absorption rate constant and bioavailability were 6.42 l h(-1) , 3.74 l h(-1) , 7.24 l, 16.8l, 0.39h(-1) and 0.48, respectively. Inclusion of bodyweight and concomitant ciclosporin reduced the inter-individual variability in CL from 54.3% to 31.6%. Children with a bodyweight of 10kg receiving standard MPA dose regimens achieve an MPA AUC below the target range suggesting they may be at a greater risk of acute rejection. CONCLUSIONS: The population pharmacokinetic model for MPA can be used to explore dosing guidelines for safe and effective immunotherapy in children and young people undergoing transplantation.

Population pharmacokinetics of melphalan in patients with multiple myeloma undergoing high dose therapy.

AIMS: To i) investigate the pharmacokinetics of total and unbound plasma melphalan using a population approach, ii) identify clinical factors that affect melphalan disposition and iii) evaluate the role of melphalan exposure in melphalan-related toxicity and disease response. METHODS: Population pharmacokinetic modelling (using NONMEM) was performed with total and unbound concentration-time data from 100 patients (36-73 years) who had received a median 192 mg m(-2) melphalan dose. Model derived estimates of total and unbound melphalan exposure (AUC) in patients with serious melphalan toxicity and those who had a good disease response (>or=90% decrease in paraprotein concentrations) were compared using the Mann-Whitney test. RESULTS: A two compartment model generated population mean estimates for total and unbound melphalan clearance (CL) of 27.8 and 128 l h(-1), respectively. Estimated creatinine clearance, fat free mass and haematocrit were important determinants of total and unbound CL, reducing the inter-individual variability in total CL from 34% to 27% and in unbound CL from 42% to 30%. Total AUC (range 4.9-24.4 mg l(-1) h) and unbound AUC (range 1.0-6.5 mg l(-1) h) were significantly higher in patients who had oral mucositis (>or=grade 3) and long hospital admissions (P < 0.01). Patients who responded well had significantly higher unbound AUC (median 3.2 vs. 2.8 mg l(-1) h, P < 0.05) when assessed from diagnosis to post-melphalan and higher total AUC (median 21.3 vs. 13.4 mg l(-1) h, P= 0.06), when assessed from pre- to post-melphalan. CONCLUSIONS: Creatinine clearance, fat free mass and haematocrit influence total and unbound melphalan plasma clearance. Melphalan exposure is related to melphalan toxicity while the association with efficacy shows promising trends that will be studied further.

An isocratic fluorescence HPLC assay for the monitoring of l-asparaginase activity and l-asparagine depletion in children receiving E. colil-asparaginase for the treatment of acute lymphoblastic leukaemia.

A novel assay for the determination of l-asparaginase activity in human plasma is described that is based on the HPLC quantitation of l-aspartic acid produced during enzyme incubation. Methods for monitoring l-asparagine depletion are also described. Chromatography of l-aspartic acid, l-asparagine and l-homoserine (the internal standard) involved derivatization with o-pthaldialdehyde, then separation from other amino acids on a Phenomenex Luna C(18) column using a 1 mL/min flow rate and a mobile phase consisting of di-potassium hydrogen orthophosphate propionate buffer, pH 6, with 10% methanol and 10% acetonitrile. Fluoresence detection was at excitation/emission wavelengths of 357/455 nm. Under these conditions l-aspartic acid, l-asparagine and l-homoserine had retention times of 3.5, 9.8 and 17.7 min, respectively. The l-asparaginase assay was linear from 0.1 to 10 U/mL activity and interday precision and accuracy were less than 13%. The limit of quantitation was approximately 0.03 U/mL. The assay utility was established in 12 children who received E. coli l-asparaginase as treatment for acute lymphoblastic leukaemia.

Variability in the pharmacokinetics of intravenous busulphan given as a single daily dose to paediatric blood or marrow transplant recipients.

AIM: To examine inter- and intrapatient variability in the pharmacokinetics of intravenous (i.v.) busulphan given as a single daily dose to children with malignant (n = 19) and nonmalignant (n = 21) disease. METHODS: Busulphan (120 mg m(-2), 130 mg m(-2) or 3.2 mg kg(-1)) was administered over median 2.1 h. Blood samples (4-10) were collected after the first dose, busulphan concentrations were measured and pharmacokinetic parameters, including clearance (CL) and area under the concentration-time curve (AUC), were determined using the Kinetica software (Innaphase). Interpatient variability was assessed as percent coefficient of variation (% CV). Intrapatient variability was assessed by calculating percent differences between observed full dose AUC and AUC predicted from an initial 65 mg m(-2) dose in 13 children who had busulphan pharmacokinetic monitoring. RESULTS: Clearance of i.v. busulphan in 40 children was 4.78 +/- 2.93 l h(-1) (% CV 61%), 0.23 +/- 0.08 l h(-1) kg(-1) (% CV 35%) and 5.79 +/- 1.59 l h(-1) m(-2) (% CV 27%). Age correlated significantly (p < 0.001) with CL (l h(-1)) and CL (l h(-1) kg(-1)), but not with CL (l h(-1) m(-2)). AUC normalized to the 130 mg m(-2) dose ranged from 14.1 to 56.3 mg l(-1) x h (% CV 37%) and also did not correlate with age. Interpatient variability in CL (l h(-1) m(-2)) was highest in six children with immune deficiencies (60%) and lowest in seven children with solid tumours (14%). Intrapatient variability was <13% for nine (of 13) children, but between 20 and 44% for four children. CONCLUSIONS: There is considerable inter- and intrapatient variability in i.v. busulphan CL (l h(-1) m(-2)) and exposure that is unrelated to age, especially in children with immune deficiencies. These results suggest that monitoring of i.v. busulphan pharmacokinetics is required.

Amphotericin B dose optimization in children with malignant diseases.

In this study, rational dosing guidelines for amphotericin B-deoxycholate (AmB) are proposed for children. AmB steady-state trough concentrations (C(ss,trough)) and plasma creatinine concentrations (C(creat)) were measured in 83 children (age: 10 months to 18 years) receiving prophylactic AmB therapy (1 mg/kg/day). Maximum tolerable AmB C(ss,trough) were identified by determining the probability of large (>24%, 75th percentile) increases in C(creat) after 6 days of AmB for a series of C(ss,trough) ranges. Dose requirements were determined using a concentration-targeting approach. The 0.76-1.05 mg/l C(ss,trough) range provided the maximum concentrations that still had a low probability (p < 0.29) of adverse renal effects. 1 mg/kg/day AmB produces C(ss,trough) within this range for children weighing 25-45 kg. Lighter children (10-25 kg) require higher AmB doses (1.25-1.5 mg/kg/day) to achieve target C(ss,trough), while heavier children (45-55 kg) require lower doses (0.75 mg/kg/day). These starting dose guidelines may require individualization and prospective evaluation.

Population pharmacokinetics of melphalan in paediatric blood or marrow transplant recipients.

AIM: To develop a population pharmacokinetic model for melphalan in children with malignant diseases and to evaluate limited sampling strategies for melphalan. METHODS: Melphalan concentration data following a single intravenous dose were collected from 59 children with malignant diseases aged between 0.3 and 18 years. The data were split into two sets: the model development dataset (39 children, 571 concentration observations) and the model validation dataset (20 children, 277 concentration observations). Population pharmacokinetic modelling was performed with the NONMEM software. Stepwise multiple linear regression was used to develop a limited sampling model for melphalan. RESULTS: A two-compartment model was fitted to the concentration-vs.-time data. The following covariate population pharmacokinetic models were obtained: (i) Clearance (l h(-1)) = 0.34.WT - 3.17.CPT + 0.0377.GFR, where WT = weight (kg), CPT = prior carboplatin therapy (0 = no, 1 = yes), and GFR = glomerular filtration rate (ml min(-1) 1.73 m(-2)); (ii) Volume of distribution (l) = 1.12 + 0.178.WT. Interpatient variability (coefficient of variation) was 27.3% for clearance and 33.8% for volume of distribution. There was insignificant bias and imprecision between observed and model-predicted melphalan concentrations in the validation dataset. A three-sample limited sampling model was developed which adequately predicted the area under the concentration-time curve (AUC) in the development and validation datasets. CONCLUSIONS: A population pharmacokinetic model for melphalan has been developed and validated and may now be used in conjunction with pharmacodynamic data to develop safe and effective dosing guidelines in children with malignant diseases.

Plasma protein distribution and its impact on pharmacokinetics of liposomal amphotericin B in paediatric patients with malignant diseases.

OBJECTIVE: This study investigates the association of liposomal amphotericin B (L-AmB) with plasma proteins and its impact on the pharmacokinetics of L-AmB in paediatric patients with malignant diseases. METHODS: Paediatric oncology patients (n = 39) who received multiple-doses of L-AmB were recruited into this study. The association of the drug with plasma lipoprotein was investigated using single vertical spin density gradient ultracentrifugation and quantitated with a validated HPLC assay. The unbound amphotericin B (AmB) in the plasma was separated by ultrafiltration and determined with a validated LC/MS/MS assay. RESULTS: The ex vivo lipoprotein distribution of L-AmB found that 68.3 +/- 11.8% of the drug was associated with the high density lipoprotein (HDL) fraction, which demonstrated a significant inverse correlation with posterior Bayesian estimates of L-AmB clearance (r = -0.690, p < 0.01). The average of unbound fraction of AmB in plasma of patients administered with L-AmB was 0.005, but its relationship with L-AmB clearance did not reach a statistical significance. CONCLUSION: L-AmB displays different lipoprotein distribution profile from that of the conventional AmB formulation, with L-AmB preferentially associated with HDL in plasma. The inverse correlation of L-AmB clearance to its HDL distribution contributes to the difference in the pharmacokinetic profile of L-AmB.

Population pharmacokinetics of liposomal amphotericin B in pediatric patients with malignant diseases.

A population pharmacokinetic model of liposomal amphotericin B (L-AmB) in pediatric patients with malignant diseases was developed and evaluated. Blood samples were collected from 39 pediatric oncology patients who received multiple doses of L-AmB with a dose range from 0.8 to 5.9 mg/kg of body weight/day. The patient cohort had an average age of 7 years (range, 0.2 to 17 years) and weighed an average of 28.8 +/- 19.8 kg. Population pharmacokinetic analyses were performed with NONMEM software. Pharmacokinetic parameters, interindividual variability (IIV), between-occasion variability (BOV), and intraindividual variability were estimated. The influence of patient characteristics on the pharmacokinetics of L-AmB was explored. The final population pharmacokinetic model was evaluated by using a bootstrap sampling technique. The L-AmB plasma concentration-time data was described by a two-compartment pharmacokinetic model with zero-order input and first-order elimination. The population mean estimates of clearance (CL) and volume of distribution in the central compartment (V1) were 0.44 liters/h and 3.12 liters, respectively, and exhibited IIV (CL, 10%) and significant BOV (CL, 46% and V1, 56%). The covariate models were CL (liters/h) = 0.44 . e(0.0152.(WT-21)) and V1 (liters) = 3.12.e(0.0241.(WT-21)), where WT is the patient's body weight (kg) centered on the study population cohort median of 21 kg. Model evaluation by the bootstrap procedure indicated that the full pharmacokinetic model was robust and parameter estimates were accurate. In conclusion, the pharmacokinetics of L-AmB in pediatric oncology patients were adequately described by the developed population model. The model has been evaluated and can be used in the design of rational dosing strategies for L-AmB antifungal therapy in this special population.

Melphalan pharmacokinetics in children with malignant disease: influence of body weight, renal function, carboplatin therapy and total body irradiation.

AIM: To analyse the pharmacokinetics of melphalan in 52 children (0.3-18 years) and determine whether any clinical factors affect the pharmacokinetic parameters Additionally, to examine whether a test melphalan dose can predict the pharmacokinetics of a full dose, when there are 5 intervening days of carboplatin therapy. METHODS: Melphalan concentrations were measured in 14 blood samples collected from each child following doses ranging from 30 to 180 mg m(-2). The pharmacokinetics were analysed with Kinetica 4.0. RESULTS: Children who did not have carboplatin (n = 27) had median melphalan clearance (CL) of 15.5 l h(-1) m(-2) (interquartile range: 12.4-19.9 l h(-1) m(-2)) and steady state volume of distribution (Vss) of 14.9 l m(-2) (interquartile range: 12.7-18.3 l m(-2)). Children who had carboplatin (n = 25) had 34% lower median CL (10.2 l h(-1) m(-2)) and 18% lower median Vss (12.2 l m(-2)) (P < 0.001). Melphalan elimination was impaired in a separate group of three children given concomitant carboplatin and etoposide. Stepwise multiple linear regression indicated that weight, carboplatin, glomerular filtration rate (GFR) and total body irradiation (TBI) significantly affected CL, while weight and carboplatin influenced Vss. A test dose (10 mg m(-2)) tended to underpredict the area-under-the-concentration-vs.-time-curve for a full (180 mg m(-2)) dose in 19 individuals given carboplatin. CONCLUSIONS: In children, melphalan CL is influenced by weight, carboplatin, TBI and GFR. Vss is influenced by weight and carboplatin.