On account of trans fatty acids and cardiovascular disease risk - There is still need to upgrade the knowledge and educate consumers.

AIMS: Trans fatty acids (TFAs) are unsaturated lipids either of industrial origin or naturally occurring in ruminant meat and milk. TFAs generated through food processing (industrial) is the main source in our diet and studies provide converging evidence on their negative effect on cardiovascular health. Since April 2021, the European Commission has put into effect a regulation for TFAs providing maximum 2% of total fat in all industrially produced foods. In light of this development, we review the evidence regarding the health attributes of different types of TFAs, their dietary sources and current intakes, and we describe the history of TFA-related legislative actions in an attempt to anticipate the efficiency of new measures. DATA SYNTHESIS: The PubMed database was searched including original research (observational and intervention studies), systematic reviews and meta-analyses. Scientific reports of competent authorities and organizations have also been screened. CONCLUSIONS: Trans-fat elimination provides a fine example of how evidence has led to the application of horizontal regulatory measures regarding legal food ingredients in order to protect consumers' health. In EU Member States, TFAs currently provide on average less than 1% of energy (1%E) and intakes marginally exceed recommendations primarily among young adults. Large dietary surveys however provide evidence for additional, less-well known sources of TFAs in the diet. Raising public awareness of "hidden" trans-fat found naturally in foods such as cheese, as well as of the trans-fat generated through traditional cooking practices is needed, if the goal to eliminate trans-fat from the diet is to be met.

Heregulin, cysteine rich-61 and matrix metalloproteinase 9 expression in human carotid atherosclerotic plaques: relationship with clinical data.

OBJECTIVES: Heregulins (HRGs) are known to induce expression of angiogenic factors such as cysteine rich-61 (CYR61) and collectively to promote neoangiogenesis. Along with extracellular matrix remodelling, mediated by matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), these factors are important in atherogenesis. The aim of the present study was to investigate HRG, CYR61 and MMP-9 expression and their relationship with clinical and histopathological findings in carotid occlusive disease. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Specimens of human carotid atherosclerotic plaque (n=90) were obtained by endarterectomy. Expression of HRG, CYR61 and MMP-9 was assessed by immunohistochemical and Western blot analysis. Associations between protein expression and degree of carotid stenosis, presence of symptoms, presence of an infarct in CT scan and carotid plaque histopathology were investigated. RESULTS: An increase in HRG, CYR61 and MMP-9 expression was found, particularly in neovascularized regions of the plaques. High HRG expression was associated with the degree of carotid stenosis (p=0.028) and plaque histopathology (p=0.002). More than half of specimens from plaques with >90% stenosis had intense expression of CYR61 (p=0.047). Increased expression of MMP-9 was associated with degree of stenosis and presence of cerebral infarct on CT scan (p=0.05). CONCLUSION: HRG, CYR61 and MMP-9 are highly expressed in human atherosclerotic carotid plaques. The association with the degree of stenosis and/or plaque histopathology implies an involvement in lesion progression.