Albumin incorporation into recognising layer of HER2-specific magnetic nanoparticles as a tool for optimal targeting of the acidic tumor microenvironment.

Cancer is unquestionably a global healthcare challenge, spurring the exporation of novel treatment approaches. In recent years, nanomaterials have garnered significant interest with the greatest hopes for targeted nanoformulations due to their cell-specific delivery, improved therapeutic efficacy, and reduced systemic toxicity for the organism. The problem of successful clinical translation of nanoparticles may be related to the fact that most in vitro tests are performed at pH values of normal cells and tissues, ranging from 7.2 to 7.4. The extracellular pH values of tumors are characterized by a shift to a more acidic region in the range of 5.6-7.0 and represent a crucial target for enhancing nanoparticle delivery to cancer cells. Here we show the method of non-active protein incorporation into the surface of HER2-targeted nanoparticles to achieve optimal cellular uptake within the pH range of the tumor microenvironment. The method efficacy was confirmed in vitro and in vivo showing the maximum binding of nanoparticles to cells at a pH value 6.4. Namely, fluorescent magnetic nanoparticles, modified with HER2-recognising affibody ZHER2:342, with proven specificity in terms of HER2 recognition (with 62-fold higher cellular uptake compared to control nanoparticles) were designed for targeting cancer cells at slightly acidic pH values. The stabilizing protein, namely, bovine serum albumin, one of the major blood components with widespread availability and biocompatibility, was used for the decoration of the nanoparticle surface to alter the pH response of the targeting magnetic conjugates. The optimally designed nanoparticles showed a bell-shaped dependency of interaction with cancer cells in the pH range of 5.6-8.0 with maximum cellular uptake at pH value 6.4 close to that of the tumor microenvironment. In vivo experiments revealed that after i.v. administration, BSA-decorated nanoparticles exhibited 2 times higher accumulation in tumors compared to magnetic nanoparticles modified with affibody only. Thus, we demonstrated a valid method for enhancing the specificity of targeted nanoparticle delivery to cancer cells without changing the functional components of nanoparticles.

Carbene-coated metal nanoparticles for in vivo applications.

N-Heterocyclic carbenes (NHC) are well-recognized ligands of choice for preparing robust transition metal species. However, their use for fabrication of biomedically relevant nanoparticles has been limited to the synthesis of non-targeted particles showing increased tolerance to different aqueous coagulants. In this work, the first example of carbene-coated metal nanoparticles suitable for in vivo applications is presented. Directed design of a novel biscarbene NHC ligand allowed to prepare the first magnetite/gold (Fe3O4@AuNP@NHC) nanostructures and carbene gold (AuNP@NHC) nanoparticles with significant stability in aqueous solutions and enhanced ability to form bioconjugates. Furthermore, these nanoparticles exhibit an extraordinary property for inorganic nanoparticles: they can endure several additive-free air drying/redispersion cycles without deterioration of their colloidal behavior. Bioconjugated AuNP@NHC and multimodal Fe3O4@AuNP@NHC demonstrated a successful performance in three distinct applications: lateral flow tests, specific cancer cell targeting, and bioimaging. Thus, the results show the notable advantages of the N-heterocyclic carbene coating of inorganic nanoparticles and their utility for complex biomedical applications.

The influence of various polymer coatings on the in vitro and in vivo properties of PLGA nanoparticles: Comprehensive study.

Nanoparticles based on poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) with various surface chemistry are widely used in biomedicine for theranostic applications. The nature of the external coating of nanoparticles has a significant influence on their efficiency as drug carriers or visualization agents. However, information about the mechanisms of nanoparticle accumulation in tumors and the influence of their surface properties on biodistribution is scarce due to the lack of systematic evaluation. Here we investigate the effect of different polymer coatings of the surface on in vitro and in vivo properties of PLGA nanoparticles. Namely, cell binding efficiency, cytotoxicity, efficiency of fluorescent bioimaging, and tumor accumulation were tested. The highest binding efficiency in vitro and cytotoxicity were observed for positively charged polymers. Interestingly, in vivo fluorescent visualization of tumor-bearing mice and quantitative measurements of biodistribution of magnetite-loaded nanoparticles indicated different dependences of accumulation in tumors on the coating of PLGA nanoparticles. This means that nanoparticle surface properties can simultaneously enhance imaging efficiency and decrease quantitative accumulation in tumors. The obtained data demonstrate the complexity of the dependence of nanoparticles' effectiveness for theranostic applications on surface features. We believe that this study will contribute to the rational design of nanoparticles for effective cancer diagnostics and therapy.

Surface Characteristics Affect the Properties of PLGA Nanoparticles as Photothermal Agents.

Photothermal therapy is one of the most promising and rapidly developing fields in modern oncology due to its high efficiency, localized action, and minimal invasiveness. Polymeric nanoparticles (NPs) incorporating low molecular-weight photothermal dyes are capable of delivering therapeutic agents to the tumor site, releasing them in a controlled manner, and providing tumor treatment under external light irradiation. The nanoparticle synthesis components are critically important factors that influence the therapeutically significant characteristics of polymeric NPs. Here, we show the impact of stabilizers and solvents used for synthesis on the properties of PLGA NPs for photothermal therapy. We synthesized PLGA nanocarriers using the microemulsion method and varied the nature of the solvent and the concentration of the stabilizer-namely, chitosan oligosaccharide lactate. A phthalocyanine-based photosensitizer, which absorbs light in the NIR window, was encapsulated in the PLGA NPs. When mQ water was used as a solvent and chitosan oligosaccharide lactate was used at a concentration of 1 g/L, the PLGA NPs exhibited highly promising photothermal properties. The final composite of the nanocarriers demonstrated photoinduced cytotoxicity against EMT6/P cells under NIR laser irradiation in vitro and was suitable for bioimaging.

Comparative Study of Nanoparticle Blood Circulation after Forced Clearance of Own Erythrocytes (Mononuclear Phagocyte System-Cytoblockade) or Administration of Cytotoxic Doxorubicin- or Clodronate-Loaded Liposomes.

Recent developments in the field of nanomedicine have introduced a wide variety of nanomaterials that are capable of recognizing and killing tumor cells with increased specificity. A major limitation preventing the widespread introduction of nanomaterials into the clinical setting is their fast clearance from the bloodstream via the mononuclear phagocyte system (MPS). One of the most promising methods used to overcome this limitation is the MPS-cytoblockade, which forces the MPS to intensify the clearance of erythrocytes by injecting allogeneic anti-erythrocyte antibodies and, thus, significantly prolongs the circulation of nanoagents in the blood. However, on the way to the clinical application of this approach, the question arises whether the induced suppression of macrophage phagocytosis via the MPS-cytoblockade could pose health risks. Here, we show that highly cytotoxic doxorubicin- or clodronate-loaded liposomes, which are widely used for cancer therapy and biomedical research, induce a similar increase in the nanoparticle blood circulation half-life in mice as the MPS-cytoblockade, which only gently and temporarily saturates the macrophages with the organism's own erythrocytes. This result suggests that from the point of view of in vivo macrophage suppression, the MPS-cytoblockade should be less detrimental than the liposomal anti-cancer drugs that are already approved for clinical application while allowing for the substantial improvement in the nanoagent effectiveness.

Targeted Two-Step Delivery of Oncotheranostic Nano-PLGA for HER2-Positive Tumor Imaging and Therapy In Vivo: Improved Effectiveness Compared to One-Step Strategy.

Therapy for aggressive metastatic breast cancer remains a great challenge for modern biomedicine. Biocompatible polymer nanoparticles have been successfully used in clinic and are seen as a potential solution. Specifically, researchers are exploring the development of chemotherapeutic nanoagents targeting the membrane-associated receptors of cancer cells, such as HER2. However, there are no targeting nanomedications that have been approved for human cancer therapy. Novel strategies are being developed to alter the architecture of agents and optimize their systemic administration. Here, we describe a combination of these approaches, namely, the design of a targeted polymer nanocarrier and a method for its systemic delivery to the tumor site. Namely, PLGA nanocapsules loaded with a diagnostic dye, Nile Blue, and a chemotherapeutic compound, doxorubicin, are used for two-step targeted delivery using the concept of tumor pre-targeting through the barnase/barstar protein "bacterial superglue". The first pre-targeting component consists of an anti-HER2 scaffold protein, DARPin9_29 fused with barstar, Bs-DARPin9_29, and the second component comprises chemotherapeutic PLGA nanocapsules conjugated to barnase, PLGA-Bn. The efficacy of this system was evaluated in vivo. To this aim, we developed an immunocompetent BALB/c mouse tumor model with a stable expression of human HER2 oncomarkers to test the potential of two-step delivery of oncotheranostic nano-PLGA. In vitro and ex vivo studies confirmed HER2 receptor stable expression in the tumor, making it a feasible tool for HER2-targeted drug evaluation. We demonstrated that two-step delivery was more effective than one-step delivery for both imaging and tumor therapy: two-step delivery had higher imaging capabilities than one-step and a tumor growth inhibition of 94.9% in comparison to 68.4% for the one-step strategy. The barnase*barstar protein pair has been proven to possess excellent biocompatibility, as evidenced by the successful completion of biosafety tests assessing immunogenicity and hemotoxicity. This renders the protein pair a highly versatile tool for pre-targeting tumors with various molecular profiles, thereby enabling the development of personalized medicine.

Non-complementary strand commutation as a fundamental alternative for information processing by DNA and gene regulation.

The discovery of the DNA double helix has revolutionized our understanding of data processing in living systems, with the complementarity of the two DNA strands providing a reliable mechanism for the storage of hereditary information. Here I reveal the 'strand commutation' phenomenon-a fundamentally different mechanism of information storage and processing by DNA/RNA based on the reversible low-affinity interactions of essentially non-complementary nucleic acids. I demonstrate this mechanism by constructing a memory circuit, a 5-min square-root circuit for 4-bit inputs comprising only nine processing ssDNAs, simulating a 572-input AND gate (surpassing the bitness of current electronic computers), and elementary algebra systems with continuously changing variables. Most importantly, I show potential pathways of gene regulation with strands of maximum non-complementarity to the gene sequence that may be key to the reduction of off-target therapeutic effects. This Article uncovers the information-processing power of the low-affinity interactions that may underlie major processes in an organism-from short-term memory to cancer, ageing and evolution.

Influence of magnetic nanoparticle biotransformation on contrasting efficiency and iron metabolism.

Magnetic nanoparticles are widely used in biomedicine for MRI imaging and anemia treatment. The aging of these nanomaterials in vivo may lead to gradual diminishing of their contrast properties and inducing toxicity. Here, we describe observation of the full lifecycle of 40-nm magnetic particles from their injection to the complete degradation in vivo and associated impact on the organism. We found that in 2 h the nanoparticles were eliminated from the bloodstream, but their initial biodistribution changed over time. In 1 week, a major part of the nanoparticles was transferred to the liver and spleen, where they degraded with a half-life of 21 days. MRI and a magnetic spectral approach revealed preservation of contrast in these organs for more than 1 month. The particle degradation led to the increased number of red blood cells and blood hemoglobin level due to released iron without causing any toxicity in tissues. We also observed an increase in gene expression level of Fe-associated proteins such as transferrin, DMT1, and ferroportin in the liver in response to the iron particle degradation. A deeper understanding of the organism response to the particle degradation can bring new directions to the field of MRI contrast agent design.

Delivery of Theranostic Nanoparticles to Various Cancers by Means of Integrin-Binding Peptides.

Active targeting of tumors is believed to be the key to efficient cancer therapy and accurate, early-stage diagnostics. Active targeting implies minimized off-targeting and associated cytotoxicity towards healthy tissue. One way to acquire active targeting is to employ conjugates of therapeutic agents with ligands known to bind receptors overexpressed onto cancer cells. The integrin receptor family has been studied as a target for cancer treatment for almost fifty years. However, systematic knowledge on their effects on cancer cells, is yet lacking, especially when utilized as an active targeting ligand for particulate formulations. Decoration with various integrin-targeting peptides has been reported to increase nanoparticle accumulation in tumors ≥ 3-fold when compared to passively targeted delivery. In recent years, many newly discovered or rationally designed integrin-binding peptides with excellent specificity towards a single integrin receptor have emerged. Here, we show a comprehensive analysis of previously unreviewed integrin-binding peptides, provide diverse modification routes for nanoparticle conjugation, and showcase the most notable examples of their use for tumor and metastases visualization and eradication to date, as well as possibilities for combined cancer therapies for a synergetic effect. This review aims to highlight the latest advancements in integrin-binding peptide development and is directed to aid transition to the development of novel nanoparticle-based theranostic agents for cancer therapy.

Photothermal Therapy with HER2-Targeted Silver Nanoparticles Leading to Cancer Remission.

Nanoparticles exhibiting the localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) phenomenon are promising tools for diagnostics and cancer treatment. Among widely used metal nanoparticles, silver nanoparticles (Ag NPs) possess the strongest light scattering and surface plasmon strength. However, the therapeutic potential of Ag NPs has until now been underestimated. Here we show targeted photothermal therapy of solid tumors with 35 nm HER2-targeted Ag NPs, which were produced by the green synthesis using an aqueous extract of Lavandula angustifolia Mill. Light irradiation tests demonstrated effective hyperthermic properties of these NPs, namely heating by 10 °C in 10 min. To mediate targeted cancer therapy, Ag NPs were conjugated to the scaffold polypeptide, affibody ZHER2:342, which recognizes a clinically relevant oncomarker HER2. The conjugation was mediated by the PEG linker to obtain Ag-PEG-HER2 nanoparticles. Flow cytometry tests showed that Ag-PEG-HER2 particles successfully bind to HER2-overexpressing cells with a specificity comparable to that of full-size anti-HER2 IgGs. A confocal microscopy study showed efficient internalization of Ag-PEG-HER2 into cells in less than 2 h of incubation. Cytotoxicity assays demonstrated effective cell death upon exposure to Ag-PEG-HER2 and irradiation, caused by the production of reactive oxygen species. Xenograft tumor therapy with Ag-PEG-HER2 particles in vivo resulted in full primary tumor regression and the prevention of metastatic spread. Thus, for the first time, we have shown that HER2-directed plasmonic Ag nanoparticles are effective sensitizers for targeted photothermal oncotherapy.

Macrophage blockade using nature-inspired ferrihydrite for enhanced nanoparticle delivery to tumor.

The rapid elimination of systemically administered drug nanocarriers by the mononuclear phagocyte system (MPS) compromises nanomedicine delivery efficacy. To mitigate this problem, an approach to block the MPS has been introduced and implemented by intravenous pre-administering blocker nanoparticles. The required large doses of blocker nanoparticles appeared to burden the MPS, raising toxicity concerns. To alleviate the toxicity issues in MPS blockade, we propose an intrinsically biocompatible blocker, ferrihydrite - a metabolite ubiquitous in a biological organism. Ferrihydrite particles were synthesized to mimic endogenous ferritin-bound iron. Ferrihydrite surface coating with carboxymethyl-dextran was found to improve MPS blockade dramatically with a 9-fold prolongation of magnetic nanoparticle circulation in the bloodstream and a 24-fold increase in the tumor targeted delivery. The administration of high doses of ferrihydrite caused low toxicity with a rapid recovery of toxicological parameters after 3 days. We believe that ferrihydrite particles coated with carboxymethyl-dextran represent superior blocking biomaterial with enviable biocompatibility.

Two-Step Targeted Drug Delivery via Proteinaceous Barnase-Barstar Interface and Doxorubicin-Loaded Nano-PLGA Outperforms One-Step Strategy for Targeted Delivery to HER2-Overexpressing Cells.

Nanoparticle-based chemotherapy is considered to be an effective approach to cancer diagnostics and therapy in modern biomedicine. However, efficient tumor targeting remains a great challenge due to the lack of specificity, selectivity, and high dosage of chemotherapeutic drugs required. A two-step targeted drug delivery strategy (DDS), involving cancer cell pre-targeting, first with a first nontoxic module and subsequent targeting with a second complementary toxic module, is a solution for decreasing doses for administration and lowering systemic toxicity. To prove two-step DDS efficiency, we performed a direct comparison of one-step and two-step DDS based on chemotherapy loaded PLGA nanoparticles and barnase*barstar interface. Namely, we developed and thoroughly characterized the two-step targeting strategy of HER2-overexpressing cancer cells. The first targeting block consists of anti-HER2 scaffold polypeptide DARPin9_29 fused with barstar. Barstar exhibits an extremely effective binding to ribonuclease barnase with Kaff = 1014 M-1, thus making the barnase*barstar protein pair one of the strongest known protein*protein complexes. A therapeutic PLGA-based nanocarrier coupled to barnase was used as a second targeting block. The PLGA nanoparticles were loaded with diagnostic dye, Nile Blue, and a chemotherapeutic drug, doxorubicin. We showed that the two-step DDS increases the performance of chemotherapy-loaded nanocarriers: IC50 of doxorubicin delivered via two-step DDS was more than 100 times lower than that for one-step DDS: IC50 = 43 ± 3 nM for two-step DDS vs. IC50 = 4972 ± 1965 nM for one-step DDS. The obtained results demonstrate the significant efficiency of two-step DDS over the classical one-step one. We believe that the obtained data will significantly change the direction of research in developing targeted anti-cancer drugs and promote the creation of new generation cancer treatment strategies.

Fluorescent Magnetic Nanoparticles for Bioimaging through Biomimetic Surface Modification.

Nanostructured materials and systems find various applications in biomedical fields. Hybrid organo-inorganic nanomaterials are intensively studied in a wide range of areas, from visualization to drug delivery or tissue engineering. One of the recent trends in material science is biomimetic approaches toward the synthesis or modification of functional nanosystems. Here, we describe an approach toward multifunctional nanomaterials through the biomimetic polymerization of dopamine derivatives. Magnetite nanoparticles were modified with a combination of dopamine conjugates to give multifunctional magneto-fluorescent nanocomposites in one synthetic step. The obtained material showed excellent biocompatibility at concentrations up to 200 µg/mL and an in vivo biodistribution profile typical for nanosized formulations. The synthesized systems were conjugated with antibodies against HER2 to improve their selectivity toward HER2-positive cancer cells. The produced material can be used for dual magneto-optical in vivo studies or targeted drug delivery. The applied synthetic strategy can be used for the creation of various multifunctional hybrid nanomaterials in mild conditions.

Imaging flow cytometry data analysis using convolutional neural network for quantitative investigation of phagocytosis.

Macrophages play an important role in the adaptive immune system. Their ability to neutralize cellular targets through Fc receptor-mediated phagocytosis has relied upon immunotherapy that has become of particular interest for the treatment of cancer and autoimmune diseases. A detailed investigation of phagocytosis is the key to the improvement of the therapeutic efficiency of existing medications and the creation of new ones. A promising method for studying the process is imaging flow cytometry (IFC) that acquires thousands of cell images per second in up to 12 optical channels and allows multiparametric fluorescent and morphological analysis of samples in the flow. However, conventional IFC data analysis approaches are based on a highly subjective manual choice of masks and other processing parameters that can lead to the loss of valuable information embedded in the original image. Here, we show the application of a Faster region-based convolutional neural network (CNN) for accurate quantitative analysis of phagocytosis using imaging flow cytometry data. Phagocytosis of erythrocytes by peritoneal macrophages was chosen as a model system. CNN performed automatic high-throughput processing of datasets and demonstrated impressive results in the identification and classification of macrophages and erythrocytes, despite the variety of shapes, sizes, intensities, and textures of cells in images. The developed procedure allows determining the number of phagocytosed cells, disregarding cases with a low probability of correct classification. We believe that CNN-based approaches will enable powerful in-depth investigation of a wide range of biological processes and will reveal the intricate nature of heterogeneous objects in images, leading to completely new capabilities in diagnostics and therapy.

Applications of Pristine and Functionalized Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene, and Graphene Nanoribbons in Biomedicine.

This review is dedicated to a comprehensive description of the latest achievements in the chemical functionalization routes and applications of carbon nanomaterials (CNMs), such as carbon nanotubes, graphene, and graphene nanoribbons. The review starts from the description of noncovalent and covalent exohedral modification approaches, as well as an endohedral functionalization method. After that, the methods to improve the functionalities of CNMs are highlighted. These methods include the functionalization for improving the hydrophilicity, biocompatibility, blood circulation time and tumor accumulation, and the cellular uptake and selectivity. The main part of this review includes the description of the applications of functionalized CNMs in bioimaging, drug delivery, and biosensors. Then, the toxicity studies of CNMs are highlighted. Finally, the further directions of the development of the field are presented.

Comparative Evaluation of Engineered Polypeptide Scaffolds in HER2-Targeting Magnetic Nanocarrier Delivery.

Targeted drug delivery is one of the most intriguing and challenging issues in modern biomedicine. For active targeting, full-size IgG molecules (150 kDa) are usually used. Recent studies have revealed that small artificial polypeptide scaffolds such as DARPins (14 kDa) and affibodies (8 kDa) are much more promising tools for drug delivery due to their small size, artificial nature, low immunogenicity, and many other properties. However, there is no comparative information on the targeting abilities of scaffold polypeptides, which should be taken into account when developing drug delivery systems (DDSs). The present work is the first comprehensive study on the comparison of the effectiveness of different HER2-targeting proteins within the architecture of nanoparticles. Namely, we synthesized trimodal nanoparticles: magnetic, fluorescent, and directed toward HER2 oncomarker on cancer cells. The magnetic particles (MPs) were covalently modified with (i) full-size IgG, 150 kDa, (ii) DARPin_G3, 14 kDa, and (iii) affibody ZHER2:342, 8 kDa. We showed that the number of DARPin_G3 and affibody ZHER2:342 molecules conjugated to the nanoparticle surface are 10 and 40 times higher, respectively, than the corresponding value for trastuzumab. Using the methods of magnetic particle quantification (MPQ)-cytometry and confocal microscopy, we showed that all types of the obtained magnetic conjugates specifically labeled HER2-overexpressing cells. Namely, we demonstrated that particle binding to HER2-positive cells is 1113 ± 39 fg/cell for MP*trastuzumab, 1431 ± 186 fg/cell for MP*ZHER2:342, and 625±21 fg/cell for MP*DARPin_G3, which are 2.77, 2.75, and 2.30 times higher than the corresponding values for control HER2-negative cells. Thus, we showed that the smallest HER2-recognizing polypeptide affibody ZHER2:342 is more effective in terms of specificity and selectivity in nanoparticle-mediated cell labeling.

Nonviral Locally Injected Magnetic Vectors for In Vivo Gene Delivery: A Review of Studies on Magnetofection.

Magnetic nanoparticles have been widely used in nanobiomedicine for diagnostics and the treatment of diseases, and as carriers for various drugs. The unique magnetic properties of "magnetic" drugs allow their delivery in a targeted tumor or tissue upon application of a magnetic field. The approach of combining magnetic drug targeting and gene delivery is called magnetofection, and it is very promising. This method is simple and efficient for the delivery of genetic material to cells using magnetic nanoparticles controlled by an external magnetic field. However, magnetofection in vivo has been studied insufficiently both for local and systemic routes of magnetic vector injection, and the relevant data available in the literature are often merely descriptive and contradictory. In this review, we collected and systematized the data on the efficiency of the local injections of magnetic nanoparticles that carry genetic information upon application of external magnetic fields. We also investigated the efficiency of magnetofection in vivo, depending on the structure and coverage of magnetic vectors. The perspectives of the development of the method were also considered.

Targeting Cancer Cell Tight Junctions Enhances PLGA-Based Photothermal Sensitizers' Performance In Vitro and In Vivo.

The development of non-invasive photothermal therapy (PTT) methods utilizing nanoparticles as sensitizers is one of the most promising directions in modern oncology. Nanoparticles loaded with photothermal dyes are capable of delivering a sufficient amount of a therapeutic substance and releasing it with the desired kinetics in vivo. However, the effectiveness of oncotherapy methods, including PTT, is often limited due to poor penetration of sensitizers into the tumor, especially into solid tumors of epithelial origin characterized by tight cellular junctions. In this work, we synthesized 200 nm nanoparticles from the biocompatible copolymer of lactic and glycolic acid, PLGA, loaded with magnesium phthalocyanine, PLGA/Pht-Mg. The PLGA/Pht-Mg particles under the irradiation with NIR light (808 nm), heat the surrounding solution by 40 °C. The effectiveness of using such particles for cancer cells elimination was demonstrated in 2D culture in vitro and in our original 3D model with multicellular spheroids possessing tight cell contacts. It was shown that the mean inhibitory concentration of such nanoparticles upon light irradiation for 15 min worsens by more than an order of magnitude: IC50 increases from 3 µg/mL for 2D culture vs. 117 µg/mL for 3D culture. However, when using the JO-4 intercellular junction opener protein, which causes a short epithelial-mesenchymal transition and transiently opens intercellular junctions in epithelial cells, the efficiency of nanoparticles in 3D culture was comparable or even outperforming that for 2D (IC50 = 1.9 µg/mL with JO-4). Synergy in the co-administration of PTT nanosensitizers and JO-4 protein was found to retain in vivo using orthotopic tumors of BALB/c mice: we demonstrated that the efficiency in the delivery of such nanoparticles to the tumor is 2.5 times increased when PLGA/Pht-Mg nanoparticles are administered together with JO-4. Thus the targeting the tumor cell junctions can significantly increase the performance of PTT nanosensitizers.

In vivo blockade of mononuclear phagocyte system with solid nanoparticles: Efficiency and affecting factors.

Smart nanomaterials, contrast nanoparticles and drug nanocarriers of advanced targeting architecture were designed for various biomedical applications. Most of such agents demonstrate poor pharmacokinetics in vivo due to rapid elimination from the bloodstream by cells of the mononuclear phagocyte system (MPS). One of the promising methods to prolong blood circulation of the nanoparticles without their modification is MPS blockade. The method temporarily decreases macrophage endocytosis in response to uptake of a low-toxic non-functional material. The effect of different factors on the efficiency of macrophage blockade in vivo induced by solid nanomaterials has been studied here. Those include: blocker nanoparticle size, ζ-potential, surface coating, dose, mice strain, presence of tumor or inflammation. We found that the blocker particle coating type had the strongest effect on MPS blockade efficiency, which allowed to prolong functional particle blood circulation half-life 18 times. The mechanisms capable of regulation of the MPS blockade have been demonstrated, which can promote application of this phenomenon in medicine for improving delivery of diagnostic and therapeutic nanomaterials.

Fast processes of nanoparticle blood clearance: Comprehensive study.

Blood circulation is the key parameter that determines the in vivo efficiency of nanoagents. Despite clinical success of the stealth liposomal agents with their inert and shielded surfaces, a great number of non-stealth nanomaterials is being developed due to their potential of enhanced functionality. By harnessing surface phenomena, such agents can offer advanced control over drug release through intricately designed nanopores, catalysis-propelled motion, computer-like analysis of several disease markers for precise target identification, etc. However, investigation of pharmacokinetic behavior of these agents becomes a great challenge due to ultra-short circulation (usually around several minutes) and impossibility to use the invasive blood-sampling techniques. Accordingly, the data on circulation of such agents has been scarce and irregular. Here, we demonstrate high-throughput capabilities of the developed magnetic particle quantification technique for nanoparticle circulation measurements and present a comprehensive investigation of factors that affect blood circulation of the non-stealth nanoparticles. Namely, we studied the following 9 factors: particle size, zeta-potential, coating, injection dose, repetitive administration, induction of anesthesia, mice strain, absence/presence of tumors, tumor size. Our fundamental findings demonstrate potential ways to extend the half-life of the agents in blood thereby giving them a better chance of achieving their goal in the organism. The study will be valuable for design of the next generation nanomaterials with advanced biomedical functionality.