Engineering a stable and selective peptide blocker of the Kv1.3 channel in T lymphocytes.

Kv1.3 potassium channels maintain the membrane potential of effector memory (T(EM)) T cells that are important mediators of multiple sclerosis, type 1 diabetes mellitus, and rheumatoid arthritis. The polypeptide ShK-170 (ShK-L5), containing an N-terminal phosphotyrosine extension of the Stichodactyla helianthus ShK toxin, is a potent and selective blocker of these channels. However, a stability study of ShK-170 showed minor pH-related hydrolysis and oxidation byproducts that were exacerbated by increasing temperatures. We therefore engineered a series of analogs to minimize the formation of these byproducts. The analog with the greatest stability, ShK-192, contains a nonhydrolyzable phosphotyrosine surrogate, a methionine isostere, and a C-terminal amide. ShK-192 shows the same overall fold as ShK, and there is no evidence of any interaction between the N-terminal adduct and the rest of the peptide. The docking configuration of ShK-192 in Kv1.3 shows the N-terminal para-phosphonophenylalanine group lying at the junction of two channel monomers to form a salt bridge with Lys(411) of the channel. ShK-192 blocks Kv1.3 with an IC(50) of 140 pM and exhibits greater than 100-fold selectivity over closely related channels. After a single subcutaneous injection of 100 microg/kg, approximately 100 to 200 pM concentrations of active peptide is detectable in the blood of Lewis rats 24, 48, and 72 h after the injection. ShK-192 effectively inhibits the proliferation of T(EM) cells and suppresses delayed type hypersensitivity when administered at 10 or 100 microg/kg by subcutaneous injection once daily. ShK-192 has potential as a therapeutic for autoimmune diseases mediated by T(EM) cells.

Designed peptide analogues of the potassium channel blocker ShK toxin.

ShK toxin, a potassium channel blocker from the sea anemone Stichodactyla helianthus, is a 35-residue polypeptide cross-linked by 3 disulfide bridges. In an effort to generate truncated peptidic analogues of this potent channel blocker, we have evaluated three analogues, one in which the native sequence was truncated and then stabilized by the introduction of additional covalent links (a non-native disulfide and two lactam bridges), and two in which non-native structural scaffolds stabilized by disulfide and/or lactam bridges were modified to include key amino acid residues from the native toxin. The effect of introducing a lactam bridge in the first helix of ShK toxin (to create cyclo14/18[Lys14,Asp18]ShK) was also examined to confirm that this modification was compatible with activity. All four analogues were tested in vitro for their ability to block Kv1.3 potassium channels in Xenopus oocytes, and their solution structures were determined using 1H NMR spectroscopy. The lactam bridge in full-length ShK is well tolerated, with only a 5-fold reduction in binding to Kv1.3. The truncated and stabilized analogue was inactive, apparently due to a combination of slight deviations from the native structure and alterations to side chains required for binding. One of the peptide scaffolds was also inactive because it failed to adopt the required structure, but the other had a K(d) of 92 microM. This active peptide incorporated mimics of Lys22 and Tyr23, which are essential for activity in ShK, and an Arg residue that could mimic Arg11 or Arg24 in the native toxin. Modification of this peptide should produce a more potent, low molecular weight peptidic analogue which will be useful not only for further in vitro and in vivo studies of the effect of blocking Kv1.3, but also for mapping the interactions with the pore and vestibule of this K(+) channel that are required for potent blockade.

Characterization of unique amphipathic antimicrobial peptides from venom of the scorpion Pandinus imperator.

Two novel antimicrobial peptides have been identified and characterized from venom of the African scorpion Pandinus imperator. The peptides, designated pandinin 1 and 2, are alpha-helical polycationic peptides, with pandinin 1 belonging to the group of antibacterial peptides previously described from scorpions, frogs and insects, and pandinin 2 to the group of short magainin-type helical peptides from frogs. Both peptides demonstrated high antimicrobial activity against a range of Gram-positive bacteria (2.4-5.2 microM), but were less active against Gram-negative bacteria (2.4-38.2 microM), and only pandinin 2 affected the yeast Candida albicans. Pandinin 2 also demonstrated strong haemolytic activity (11.1-44.5 microM) against sheep erythrocytes, in contrast with pandinin 1, which was not haemolytic. CD studies and a high-resolution structure of pandinin 2 determined by NMR, showed that the two peptides are both essentially helical, but differ in their overall structure. Pandinin 2 is composed of a single alpha-helix with a predominantly hydrophobic N-terminal sequence, whereas pandinin 1 consists of two distinct alpha-helices separated by a coil region of higher flexibility. This is the first report of magainin-type polycationic antimicrobial peptides in scorpion venom. Their presence brings new insights into the mode of action of scorpion venom and also opens new avenues for the discovery of novel antibiotic molecules from arthropod venoms.

Antiviral activity and structural characteristics of the nonglycosylated central subdomain of human respiratory syncytial virus attachment (G) glycoprotein.

Segments of the cystine noose-containing nonglycosylated central subdomain, residues 149-197, of the attachment (G) glycoprotein of human respiratory syncytial virus (HRSV) have been assessed for impact on the cytopathic effect (CPE) of respiratory syncytial virus (RSV). Nalpha-acetyl residues 149-197-amide (G149-197), G149-189, and G149-177 of the A2 strain of HRSV protected 50% of human epithelial HEp-2 cells from the CPE of the A2 strain at concentrations (IC(50)) between 5 and 80 microm. Cystine noose-containing peptides G171-197 and G173-197 did not inhibit the CPE even at concentrations above 150 microm. Systematic C- and N-terminal truncations from G149-189 and G149-177 and alanine substitutions within G154-177 demonstrated that residues 166-170 (EVFNF), within a sequence that is conserved in HRSV strains, were critical for inhibition. Concordantly, G154-177 of bovine RSV and of an antibody escape mutant of HRSV with residues 166-170 of QTLPY and EVSNP, respectively, were not inhibitory. Surprisingly, a variant of G154-177 with an E166A substitution had an IC(50) of 750 nm. NMR analysis demonstrated that G149-177 adopted a well-defined conformation in solution, clustered around F168 and F170. G154-170, particularly EVFNF, may be important in binding of RSV to host cells. These findings constitute a promising platform for the development of antiviral agents for RSV.

A helical capping motif in ShK toxin and its role in helix stabilization.

ShK toxin, a 35-residue polypeptide cross-linked by three disulfides, is a potent blocker of voltage-gated potassium channels and is of interest as a lead in the development of new immunosuppressant agents. ShK toxin contains two short stretches of alpha-helix, the first of which is preceded by a putative N-capping box encompassing residues Thr13 and Gln16. (1)H and (13)C NMR data support the presence of this structural motif, but the hydrogen bonds involving residues 13 and 16 in the solution structure of ShK toxin do not match the pattern expected for a conventional N-cap motif. They do, however, fit the pattern for the recently described ST-motif, class 4a (Wan and Milner-White (1999) Journal of Molecular Biology, 1999, Vol. 286, pp. 1651-1662). The (1)H NMR chemical shifts, nuclear Overhauser effects, and amide exchange rates of native ShK toxin are compared with those of three synthetic analogues with the substitutions Thr13 to Ala and Gln16 to Glu and Ala in order to determine the contribution of this motif to the structure and stability of ShK toxin. Disruption of the capping interactions destabilizes the helices, with the Thr13 to Ala substitution being much more disruptive than Gln16 to Ala, consistent with the lack of hydrogen bonding to the side chain of residue i + 4 in a class 4a ST-motif. Mutation of residues 13 and 16 has only a minor effect on potassium channel binding, probably because the disulfide bonding network minimizes the effect of loss of the capping motif on the overall structure. The implications of these findings for the design of ShK analogues are discussed.

Design and synthesis of type-III mimetics of omega-conotoxin GVIA.

Our interest lies in the rational design and synthesis of type-III mimetics of protein and polypeptide structure and function. Our approach involves interactive design of conformationally defined molecular scaffolds that project certain functional groups in a way that mimics the projection of important binding residues as determined in the parent structure. These design principles are discussed and applied to the structurally defined polypeptide, omega-conotoxin GVIA, which blocks voltage-gated, neuronal N-type calcium channels. These ion channels represent therapeutic targets for the development of new analgesics that can treat chronic pain. It is shown how a discontinuous, 3-residue pharmacophore of GVIA can be mimicked by different molecular scaffolds. It is illustrated how such 1st generation leads must necessarily be weak and that optimisability must therefore be built-in during the design process.

The cyclic contryphan motif CPxXPXC, a robust scaffold potentially useful as an omega-conotoxin mimic.

Contryphan-R, from venom of the cone-shell Conus radiatus, represents a novel cyclic peptide scaffold onto which residues may be grafted to mimic unrelated protein surfaces. Three substitutions were made at the x and X positions of the disulfide-bridged motif CPxXPXC, where X and x represent any L- and D-handed residues, respectively, P represents proline or hydroxyproline, and C a half-cystine. These substitutions were designed to mimic part of the pharmacophore of the unrelated globular polypeptide omega-conotoxin GVIA, which blocks N-type calcium channels. The structure of this engineered contryphan, YNK-contryphan-R ([D-Tyr4, Asn5, Lys7]contryphan-R), is shown to be similar to that of native contryphan-R (Pallaghy et al., Biochemistry, 1999, Vol. 38, pp. 13553-13559), confirming that the scaffold is robust with respect to the multiple substitutions. In particular, the alpha-beta bond vectors characterising the orientation of the side chains relative to the backbone are similar in contryphan-R, YNK-contryphan-R, and omega-conotoxin GVIA, which is the required result for a scaffold-based approach to molecular design. The solution structure of YNK-contryphan-R has an N-terminal, nonhydrogen-bonded, chain reversal centered on Hyp3-D-Trp4, and a C-terminal type I beta-turn. A minor form due to cis-trans isomerism of the Hyp2-Cys3 peptide bond is present in YNK-contryphan-R in a larger proportion than in contryphan-R. It is evident, particularly from the (3)J(HalphaHN) coupling constants, that YNK-contryphan-R is more flexible than contryphan-R, probably due to the absence in YNK-contryphan-R of the Pro-Trp packing present in the native molecule. Nevertheless, the structure confirms that cyclic peptide molecular designs can achieve the intended conformations.

Backbone dynamics measurements on leukemia inhibitory factor, a rigid four-helical bundle cytokine.

The backbone dynamics of the four-helical bundle cytokine leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) have been investigated using 15N NMR relaxation and amide proton exchange measurements on a murine-human chimera, MH35-LIF. For rapid backbone motions (on a time scale of 10 ps to 100 ns), as probed by 15N relaxation measurements, the dynamics parameters were calculated using the model-free formalism incorporating the model selection approach. The principal components of the inertia tensor of MH35-LIF, as calculated from its NMR structure, were 1:0.98:0.38. The global rotational motion of the molecule was, therefore, assumed to be axially symmetric in the analysis of its relaxation data. This yielded a diffusion anisotropy D(parallel)/D(perpendicular) of 1.31 and an effective correlation time (4D(perpendicular) + 2D(parallel))(-1) of 8.9 ns. The average values of the order parameters (S2) for the four helices, the long interhelical loops, and the N-terminus were 0.91, 0.84, and 0.65, respectively, indicating that LIF is fairly rigid in solution, except at the N-terminus. The S2 values for the long interhelical loops of MH35-LIF were higher than those of their counterparts in short-chain members of the four-helical bundle cytokine family. Residues involved in LIF receptor binding showed no consistent pattern of backbone mobilities, with S2 values ranging from 0.71 to 0.95, but residues contributing to receptor binding site III had relatively lower S2 values, implying higher amplitude motions than for the backbone of sites I and II. In the relatively slow motion regime, backbone amide exchange measurements showed that a number of amides from the helical bundle exchanged extremely slowly, persisting for several months in 2H2O at 37 degrees C. Evidence for local unfolding was considered, and correlations among various structure-related parameters and the backbone amide exchange rates were examined. Both sets of data concur in showing that LIF is one of the most rigid four-helical bundle cytokines.

The single mutation Phe173 --> Ala induces a molten globule-like state in murine interleukin-6.

A series of three aromatic to alanine mutants of recombinant murine interleukin-6 lacking the 22 N-terminal residues (DeltaN22mIL-6) were constructed to investigate the role of these residues in the structure and function of mIL-6. While Y78A and Y97A have activities similar to that of DeltaN22mIL-6, F173A lacks biological activity. F173A retains high levels of secondary structure, as determined by far-UV circular dichroism (CD), but has substantially reduced levels of tertiary structure, as determined by near-UV CD and (1)H NMR spectroscopy. F173A also binds the hydrophobic dye 1-anilino-8-naphthalenesulfonic acid (ANS) over a range of pH values and exhibits noncooperative equilibrium unfolding (as judged by the noncoincidence of monophasic unfolding transitions monitored by far-UV CD and lambda(max), with midpoints of unfolding at 2.6 +/- 0. 1 and 3.5 +/- 0.3 M urea, respectively, and the lack of an observable thermal unfolding transition). These are all properties of molten globule states, suggesting that the loss of activity of F173A results from the disruption of the fine structure of the protein, rather than from the loss of a side chain that is important for ligand-receptor interactions. Surprisingly, under some conditions, this loosened conformation is no more susceptible to proteolytic attack than the parent protein. By analogy with human IL-6, Phe173 in DeltaN22mIL-6 makes multiple interhelical interactions, the removal of which appear to be sufficient to induce a molten globule-like conformation.

Structure-guided transformation of charybdotoxin yields an analog that selectively targets Ca(2+)-activated over voltage-gated K(+) channels.

We have used a structure-based design strategy to transform the polypeptide toxin charybdotoxin, which blocks several voltage-gated and Ca(2+)-activated K(+) channels, into a selective inhibitor. As a model system, we chose two channels in T-lymphocytes, the voltage-gated channel Kv1.3 and the Ca(2+)-activated channel IKCa1. Homology models of both channels were generated based on the crystal structure of the bacterial channel KcsA. Initial docking of charybdotoxin was undertaken with both models, and the accuracy of these docking configurations was tested by mutant cycle analyses, establishing that charybdotoxin has a similar docking configuration in the external vestibules of IKCa1 and Kv1.3. Comparison of the refined models revealed a unique cluster of negatively charged residues in the turret of Kv1.3, not present in IKCa1. To exploit this difference, three novel charybdotoxin analogs were designed by introducing negatively charged residues in place of charybdotoxin Lys(32), which lies in close proximity to this cluster. These analogs block IKCa1 with approximately 20-fold higher affinity than Kv1.3. The other charybdotoxin-sensitive Kv channels, Kv1.2 and Kv1. 6, contain the negative cluster and are predictably insensitive to the charybdotoxin position 32 analogs, whereas the maxi-K(Ca) channel, hSlo, lacking the cluster, is sensitive to the analogs. This provides strong evidence for topological similarity of the external vestibules of diverse K(+) channels and demonstrates the feasibility of using structure-based strategies to design selective inhibitors for mammalian K(+) channels. The availability of potent and selective inhibitors of IKCa1 will help to elucidate the role of this channel in T-lymphocytes during the immune response as well as in erythrocytes and colonic epithelia.

Role of disulfide bonds in the structure and potassium channel blocking activity of ShK toxin.

ShK toxin, a potassium channel blocker from the sea anemone Stichodactyla helianthus, is a 35 residue polypeptide cross-linked by three disulfide bridges: Cys3-Cys35, Cys12-Cys28, and Cys17-Cys32. To investigate the role of these disulfides in the structure and channel-blocking activity of ShK toxin, a series of analogues was synthesized by selective replacement of each pair of half-cystines with two alpha-amino-butyrate (Abu) residues. The remaining two disulfide pairs were formed unambiguously using an orthogonal protecting group strategy of Cys(Trt) or Cys(Acm) at the appropriate position. The peptides were tested in vitro for their ability to block Kv1.1 and Kv1.3 potassium channels and their ability to displace [(125)I]dendrotoxin binding to rat brain synaptosomal membranes. The monocyclic peptides showed no activity in these assays. Of the dicyclic peptides, [Abu12,28]ShK(3-35,17)(-)(32) (where the subscript indicates disulfide connectivities) had weak activity on Kv1.3 and Kv1.1. [Abu17,32]ShK(3-35,12)(-)(28) blocked Kv1.3 with low nanomolar potency, but was less effective (being comparable to [Abu12,28]ShK(3-35,17)(-)(32)) against Kv1.1. [Abu3, 35]ShK(12-28,17)(-)(32), retained high picomolar affinity against both channels. Corroborating these results, [Abu3,35]ShK(12-28, 17)(-)(32) had an IC(50) ratio relative to native toxin of 18 in the displacement assay, whereas [Abu17,32]ShK(3-35,12)(-)(28) and [Abu12, 28]ShK(3-35,17)(-)(32) had ratios of 69 and 390, respectively. Thus, the disulfide bond linking the N- and C-terminal regions is less important for activity than the internal disulfides. NMR analysis of the [Abu12,28] and [Abu17,32] analogues indicated that they had little residual structure, consistent with their significantly reduced activities. By contrast, [Abu3,35]ShK(12-28,17)(-)(32) had a moderately well-defined solution structure, with a mean pairwise root-mean-square deviation of 1.33 A over the backbone heavy atoms. This structure nevertheless showed significant differences from that of native ShK toxin. The possible interactions of this analogue with the channel and the distinction between native secondary and tertiary structure on one hand and global topology imposed by the disulfide bridges on the other are discussed.

Role of disulfide bridges in the folding, structure and biological activity of omega-conotoxin GVIA.

Omega-Conotoxin GVIA (GVIA), an N-type calcium channel blocker from the cone shell Conus geographus, is a 27 residue polypeptide cross-linked by three disulfide bonds. Here, we report the synthesis, structural analysis by (1)H NMR and bioassay of analogues of GVIA with disulfide bridge deletions and N- and C-terminal truncations. Two analogues that retain the crucial Lys-2 and Tyr-13 residues in loops constrained by two native disulfide bridges were synthesised using orthogonal protection of cysteine residues. In the first analogue, the Cys-15-Cys-26 disulfide bridge was deleted (by replacing the appropriate Cys residues with Ser), while in the second, this disulfide bridge and the eight C-terminal residues were deleted. No activity was detected for either analogue in a rat vas deferens assay, which measures N-type calcium channel activity in sympathetic nerve, and NMR studies showed that this was due to a gross loss of secondary and tertiary structure. Five inactive analogues that were synthesised without orthogonal protection of Cys residues as part of a previous study (Flinn et al. (1995) J. Pept. Sci. 1, 379-384) were also investigated. Three had single disulfide deletions (via Ser substitutions) and two had N- or C-terminal deletions in addition to the disulfide deletion. Peptide mapping and NMR analyses demonstrated that at least four of these analogues had non-native disulfide pairings, which presumably accounts for their lack of activity. The NMR studies also showed that all five analogues had substantially altered tertiary structures, although the backbone chemical shifts and nuclear Overhauser enhancements (NOEs) implied that native-like turn structures persisted in some of these analogues despite the non-native disulfide pairings. This work demonstrates the importance of the disulfides in omega-conotoxin folding and shows that the Cys-15-Cys-26 disulfide is essential for activity in GVIA. The NMR analyses also emphasise that backbone chemical shifts and short- and medium-range NOEs are dictated largely by local secondary structure elements and are not necessarily reliable monitors of the tertiary fold.

Solution structure of contryphan-R, a naturally occurring disulfide-bridged octapeptide containing D-tryptophan: comparison with protein loops.

Contryphan-R is a disulfide-constrained octapeptide containing a D-tryptophan that was isolated recently from venom of the cone shell Conus radiatus. The polypeptide is present in two forms in solution due to cis-trans isomerization at hydroxyproline 3. The solution structure of the major form of this unusual polypeptide, determined from NMR data, consists of a well-defined fold containing a non-hydrogen-bonded chain reversal from Gly1 to Glu5, which includes a cis-hydroxyproline and a D-Trp, and a type I beta-turn from Glu5 to Cys8. The presence of a putative salt bridge between the Glu5 carboxyl group and the N-terminal ammonium group is investigated by using various solvation models during energy minimization and is compared with the results of a pH titration. A comparison of the structure of contryphan-R with other cyclic peptide structures highlights some of the key structural determinants of these peptides and suggests that the contryphan-R fold could be exploited as a scaffold onto which unrelated protein binding surfaces could be grafted. Comparison with small disulfide-bridged loops in larger proteins shows that contryphan-R is similar to a commonly occurring loop structure found in proteins.

Solution structure of a baculoviral inhibitor of apoptosis (IAP) repeat.

Members of the inhibitor of apoptosis (IAP) family of proteins are able to inhibit cell death following viral infection, during development or in cell lines in vitro. All IAP proteins bear one or more baculoviral IAP repeats (BIRs). Here we describe the solution structure of the third BIR domain from the mammalian IAP homolog B (MIHB/c-IAP-1). The BIR domain has a novel fold that is stabilized by zinc tetrahedrally coordinated by one histidine and three cysteine residues. The structure consists of a series of short alpha-helices and turns with the zinc packed in an unusually hydrophobic environment created by residues that are highly conserved among all BIRs.

Roles of key functional groups in omega-conotoxin GVIA synthesis, structure and functional assay of selected peptide analogues.

The contributions of various functional groups to the pharmacophore of the N-type calcium-channel blocker, omega-conotoxin GVIA (GVIA), have been investigated using structural and in-vitro functional studies of analogues substituted at one or two positions with non-native residues. In most cases the structure of the analogue was shown to be native-like by 1H NMR spectroscopy. Minor conformational changes observed in some cases were characterized by two-dimensional NMR. Three functional assays (sympathetic nerve stimulation of rat isolated vas deferens, right atrium and mesenteric artery) were employed to monitor N-type calcium-channel activity. The data provide a more detailed picture of the roles in GVIA structure and activity of the crucial Lys2 and Tyr13, as well as all other positively charged residues, Tyr22, the hydroxyproline residues and the C-terminal amido moiety, many of which were identified as being important for activity in an alanine scan [Lew et al. (1997) J. Biol. Chem. 272, 12014-12023]. Substitutions of Lys2 with nonstandard amino acids and arginine quantified the roles of the length and charge of the Lys side chain. The orientation of the Tyr13 side chain and its hydroxyl moiety was shown to be important by substitution with d-Tyr and the d-form and l-form of the constrained analogue 7-hydroxy-1,2,3,4-tetrahydroisoquinoline-3-carboxylic acid [Tic(OH)]. The roles of the Hyp10 and Hyp21 hydroxyl groups, investigated by proline substitutions, appear to be more structural (as monitored by NMR) than functional, although small decreases in potency were observed in some assays. The reversibility of the channel blockade was also studied, and several analogues with faster wash-out characteristics than native GVIA were identified. Rapid reversibility (as in the case of omega-conotoxin MVIIA) may be beneficial for therapeutic applications. Disubstituted analogues revealed some interesting cooperative effects, which were not predicted from single-residue substitutions. A disubstituted chimera of GVIA and omega-conotoxin MVIIA was more potent than either native molecule. The more detailed description of the GVIA pharmacophore obtained here provides a better basis for the future design of truncated peptide and peptidomimetic analogues.

Refined solution structure of omega-conotoxin GVIA: implications for calcium channel binding.

The polypeptide omega-conotoxin GVIA (GVIA) is an N-type calcium channel blocker from the venom of Conus geographus, a fish-hunting cone shell. Here we describe a high-resolution solution structure of this member of the 'inhibitor cystine knot' protein family. The structure, based on NMR data acquired at 600 MHz, has mean pairwise RMS differences of 0.25 +/- 0.06 and 1.07 +/- 0.14 A over the backbone heavy atoms and all heavy atoms, respectively. The solvent-accessible side chains are better defined than in previously published structures and provide an improved basis for docking GVIA with models of the calcium channel. Moreover, some side chain interactions important in GVIA folding in vitro and in stabilizing the native structure are defined clearly in the refined structure. Two qualitatively different backbone conformations in the segment from Thr11 to Asn14 persisted in the restrained simulated annealing calculations until a small number of lower bound constraints was included to prevent close contacts from occurring that did not correspond with peaks in the NOESY spectrum. It is possible that GVIA is genuinely flexible at this segment, spending a finite time in the alternative conformation, and this may influence its interaction with the calcium channel.

1H NMR study of robustoxin, the lethal neurotoxin from the funnel web spider Atrax robustus.

Robustoxin, the lethal neurotoxin from the Sydney funnel web spider Atrax robustus, is a polypeptide of 42 residues cross-linked by four disulfide bonds. This paper describes the sequence-specific assignment of resonances in the 1H nuclear magnetic resonance spectrum of robustoxin in aqueous solution. Several broad backbone amide resonances were encountered in spectra recorded at 27 degrees C, making the assignments at that temperature incomplete. In spectra recorded at lower temperatures these amide resonances became sharper, but others that were sharp at 27 degrees C became broad, indicative of conformational averaging on the millisecond timescale for certain regions of the structure. Nevertheless, it was possible to establish that robustoxin contains a small, triple-stranded, antiparallel beta-sheet and several reverse turns, but no alpha-helix. These observations indicate that this toxin may adopt the inhibitor cystine knot structure found in polypeptides from a diverse range of species, including a number of spiders. Analysis of the pH dependence of the spectrum yielded pKa values for Tyr22 and Tyr25, one of the three carboxyl groups, and the Lys residues.

ShK-Dap22, a potent Kv1.3-specific immunosuppressive polypeptide.

The voltage-gated potassium channel in T lymphocytes, Kv1.3, is an important molecular target for immunosuppressive agents. A structurally defined polypeptide, ShK, from the sea anemone Stichodactyla helianthus inhibited Kv1.3 potently and also blocked Kv1.1, Kv1.4, and Kv1.6 at subnanomolar concentrations. Using mutant cycle analysis in conjunction with complementary mutagenesis of ShK and Kv1.3, and utilizing the structure of ShK, we determined a likely docking configuration for this peptide in the channel. Based upon this topological information, we replaced the critical Lys22 in ShK with the positively charged, non-natural amino acid diaminopropionic acid (ShK-Dap22) and generated a highly selective and potent blocker of the T-lymphocyte channel. ShK-Dap22, at subnanomolar concentrations, suppressed anti-CD3 induced human T-lymphocyte [3H]thymidine incorporation in vitro. Toxicity with this mutant peptide was low in a rodent model, with a median paralytic dose of approximately 200 mg/kg body weight following intravenous administration. The overall structure of ShK-Dap22 in solution, as determined from NMR data, is similar to that of native ShK toxin, but there are some differences in the residues involved in potassium channel binding. Based on these results, we propose that ShK-Dap22 or a structural analogue may have use as an immunosuppressant for the prevention of graft rejection and for the treatment of autoimmune diseases.

The cystine knot structure of ion channel toxins and related polypeptides.

An increasing number of ion channel toxins and related polypeptides have been found to adopt a common structural motif designated the inhibitor cystine knot motif (Pallaghy P. K., Nielsen, K. J., Craik, D. J., Norton, R. S. (1994) A common structural motif incorporating a cystine knot and triple-stranded beta-sheet in toxic and inhibitory polypeptides. Protein Science 3, 1833-1839). These globular, disulfide-stabilized molecules come from phylogenetically diverse sources, including spiders, cone shells, plants and fungi, and have various functions, although many target voltage-gated ion-channels. The common motif consists of a cystine knot and a triple-stranded, anti-parallel beta-sheet. Examples of ion-channel toxins known to adopt this structure are the omega-conotoxins and omega-agatoxins, and, more recently, robustoxin, versutoxin and protein 5 from spiders, as well as kappa-conotoxin PVIIA and conotoxin GS from cone shells. The variations on the motif structure exemplified by these structures are described here. We also consider the sequences of several polypeptides that might adopt this fold, including SNX-325 from a spider, delta-conotoxin PVIA and the muO-conotoxins from cone shells, and various plant and fungal polypeptides. The interesting case of the two- and three-disulfide bridged binding domains of the cellobiohydrolases from the fungus Trichoderma reesei is also discussed. The compact and robust nature of this motif makes it an excellent scaffold for the design and engineering of novel polypeptides with enhanced activity against existing targets, or with activity against novel targets.

Solution structure of leukemia inhibitory factor.

The solution structure of a murine-human chimera of leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF), a 180-residue cytokine with a molecular mass of 20 kDa, has been determined using multidimensional heteronuclear NMR techniques. The protein contains four alpha-helices, the relative orientations of which are well defined on the basis of long-range interhelical nuclear Overhauser effects. The helices are arranged in an up-up-down-down orientation, as found in other four-helix bundle cytokines, and the overall topology of the chimera is similar to that of the crystal structure of murine LIF (Robinson, R. C., Grey, L. M., Staunton, D., Vankelecom, H. Vernallis, A. B., Moreau, J. F., Stuart, D. I., Heath, J. K., and Jones, E. Y. (1994) Cell 77, 1101-1116). Differences between the structures are evident in the N-terminal region, where the peptide bond preceding Pro17 has a trans-conformation in solution but a cis-conformation in the crystal, and in the small antiparallel beta-sheet encompassing residues in the N terminus and the CD loop in the crystal structure, which is not apparent in solution. There are also minor differences in the extent of the helices. Other than at the N terminus, the main difference between the two structures occurs at the C-terminal end of the CD loop. As this loop is close to a receptor-binding site on LIF that makes a major contribution to high affinity binding to the LIF receptor alpha-chain, these differences between the solution and crystal structures should be taken into account in structural models of LIF receptor interactions.