Residential proximity to dioxin-emitting facilities and risk of non-Hodgkin lymphoma in the NIH-AARP Diet and Health Study.

BACKGROUND: Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) are persistent organic pollutants emitted from industrial sources. Residential proximity to these emissions has been associated with risk of non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) in a limited number of studies. METHODS: We evaluated associations between residential proximity to PCDD/F-emitting facilities and NHL in the NIH-AARP Diet and Health Study (N = 451,410), a prospective cohort enrolled in 1995-1996 in 6 states and 2 U.S. cities. We linked enrollment addresses with a U.S. Environmental Protection Agency database of 4,478 historical PCDD/F sources with estimated toxic equivalency quotient (TEQ) emissions. We evaluated associations between NHL and exposures during a historical period prior to enrollment (1980-1995) using an average emissions index, weighted by toxicity, distance, and wind direction (AEI-W [g TEQ/km2]) within 3-, 5- and 10 km of residences. We also evaluated proximity-only metrics indicating the presence/absence of one or more facilities within each distance, and metrics calculated separately for each facility type. We used Cox regression to estimate associations (hazard ratio, HR; 95 % confidence interval, 95 %CI) with NHL and major subtypes, adjusting for demographic, lifestyle, and dietary factors. RESULTS: A total of 6,467 incident cases of NHL were diagnosed through 2011. Participants with an AEI-W ≥ 95th percentile had elevated risk of NHL compared to those unexposed at 3 km (HR = 1.16; 95 %CI = 0.89-1.52; p-trend = 0.24), 5 km (HR = 1.20;95 %CI = 0.99-1.46;p-trend = 0.05) and 10 km (HR = 1.15; 95 %CI = 0.99-1.34; p-trend = 0.04). We found a positive association at 5 km with follicular lymphoma (HR≥95vs.0 = 1.62; 95 %CI = 0.98-2.67; p-trend = 0.05) and a suggestive association for diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (HR≥95vs.0 = 1.40; 95 %CI = 0.91-2.14; p-trend = 0.11). NHL risk was also associated with high emissions from coal-fired power plants within 10 km (HR≥95vs.0 = 1.42; 95 %CI = 1.09-1.84; p-trend = 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Residential proximity to relatively high dioxin emissions from industrial sources may increase the risk of NHL and specific subtypes.

Agricultural and domestic pesticides in house dust from different agricultural areas in France.

Pesticides have been associated with various pathologies, and there is growing evidence of pesticide presence in domestic environments. However, most available studies focused on a limited number of pesticides or households, and few have been conducted in Europe. We aimed to assess indoor pesticide contamination by screening the prevalence of 276 pesticides and ten pesticide metabolites, in French households from different agricultural and urban areas. We sampled indoor dust from 239 households in 2012, proximate to orchards (n = 69), cereals (n = 66) and vineyard (n = 68) crops, or from urban area (n = 36). we used cellulose wipes moistened with isopropanol and polypropylene dust traps to collect recent (7 and 30 days, respectively) and settled dust (> 6 months). Overall, 125 pesticides and piperonyl butoxide were detected at least once in households, mostly at low prevalence: 97 in recent dust, and 111 in settled dust. In recent dust, the most prevalent compounds were o-phenylphenol (168 households, 70%), pentachlorophenol (86, 36%), and piperonyl butoxide (82, 34%). In addition to agricultural pesticides, we found a high proportion of domestic and banned compounds in recent and settled house dust. Several pesticides were identified in house dust, from different pesticide groups and sources. Our results suggest that domestic usage and persistence of banned pesticides may contribute substantially to indoor pesticide contamination. Graphical abstract 97 pesticides detected in households' recent indoor dust.

Bladder Cancer and Water Disinfection By-product Exposures through Multiple Routes: A Population-Based Case-Control Study (New England, USA).

BACKGROUND: Ingestion of disinfection byproducts has been associated with bladder cancer in multiple studies. Although associations with other routes of exposure have been suggested, epidemiologic evidence is limited. OBJECTIVES: We evaluated the relationship between bladder cancer and total, chlorinated, and brominated trihalomethanes (THMs) through various exposure routes. METHODS: In a population-based case­control study in New England (n=(1,213) cases; n=(1,418) controls), we estimated lifetime exposure to THMs from ingestion, showering/bathing, and hours of swimming pool use. We calculated odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) using unconditional logistic regression adjusted for confounders. RESULTS: Adjusted ORs for bladder cancer comparing participants with exposure above the 95th percentile with those in the lowest quartile of exposure (based on the distribution in controls) were statistically significant for average daily intake mg/d of total THMs [OR=1.53 (95% CI: 1.01, 2.32), p-trend=0.16] and brominated THMs [OR=1.98 (95% CI: 1.19, 3.29), p-trend=0.03]. For cumulative intake mg, the OR at the 95th percentile of total THMs was 1.45 (95% CI: 0.95, 2.2), p-trend=0.13; the ORs at the 95th percentile for chlorinated and brominated THMs were 1.77 (95% CI: 1.05, 2,.99), p-trend=0.07 and 1.78 (95% CI: 1.05, 3.00), p-trend=0.02, respectively. The OR in the highest category of showering/bathing for brominated THMs was 1.43 (95% CI: 0.80, 2.42), p-trend=0.10. We found no evidence of an association for bladder cancer and hours of swimming pool use. CONCLUSIONS: We observed a modest association between ingestion of water with higher THMs (>95th percentile vs.<25th percentile) and bladder cancer. Brominated THMs have been a particular concern based on toxicologic evidence, and our suggestive findings for multiple metrics require further study in a population with higher levels of these exposures. Data from this population do not support an association between swimming pool use and bladder cancer. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP89.

Comparison of industrial emissions and carpet dust concentrations of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans in a multi-center U.S. study.

Proximity to facilities emitting polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDD/F) has been associated with increased risk of non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL). There is limited information about whether proximity to industrial sources leads to indoor PCDD/F contamination of homes. We measured carpet dust concentrations (pg/g) of 17 toxic PCDD/F congeners and calculated their toxic equivalence (TEQ) in 100 homes in a population-based case-control study of NHL in Detroit, Los Angeles, Seattle, and Iowa (1998-2000). We took global positioning system readings at residences and obtained coordinates and PCDD/F emissions (ng TEQ/yr) from an Environmental Protection Agency database for 6 facility types: coal-fired electricity generating plants, cement kilns burning non-hazardous waste, hazardous waste incinerators, medical waste incinerators, municipal solid waste incinerators, and sewage sludge incinerators. For each residence, we computed an inverse distance-squared weighted average emission index (AEI [pg TEQ/km2/yr]) for all facilities within 5km from 1983 to 2000. We also computed AEIs for each of the 6 facility types. We evaluated relationships between PCDD/F dust concentrations and the all-facility AEI or categories of facility-type AEIs using multivariable linear regression, adjusting for study center, demographics, and home characteristics. A doubling of the all-facility AEI was associated with a 4-8% increase in PCDD/F dust concentrations of 7 of 17 PCDD/F congeners and the TEQ (p-value<0.1). We also observed positive associations between PCDD/F dust concentrations and facility-type AEIs (highest vs. lowest exposure category) for municipal solid waste incinerators (9 PCDD/F, TEQ), and medical waste incinerators (7 PCDD/F, TEQ) (p<0.1). Our results from diverse geographical areas suggest that industrial PCDD/F emission sources contribute to residential PCDD/F dust concentrations. Our emissions index could be improved by incorporating local meteorological data and terrain characteristics. Future research is needed to better understand the links between nearby emission sources, human exposure pathways, and health risks.

Efficiency of wipe sampling on hard surfaces for pesticides and PCB residues in dust.

Pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are commonly found in house dust and have been described as a valuable matrix to assess indoor pesticide and PCB contamination. The aim of this study was to assess the efficiency and precision of cellulose wipe for collecting 48 pesticides, eight PCBs, and one synergist at environmental concentrations. First, the efficiency and repeatability of wipe collection were determined for pesticide and PCB residues that were directly spiked onto three types of household floors (tile, laminate, and hardwood). Second, synthetic dust was used to assess the capacity of the wipe to collect dust. Third, we assessed the efficiency and repeatability of wipe collection of pesticides and PCB residues that was spiked onto synthetic dust and then applied to tile. In the first experiment, the overall collection efficiency was highest on tile (38%) and laminate (40%) compared to hardwood (34%), p<0.001. The second experiment confirmed that cellulose wipes can efficiently collect dust (82% collection efficiency). The third experiment showed that the overall collection efficiency was higher in the presence of dust (72% vs. 38% without dust, p<0.001). Furthermore, the mean repeatability also improved when compounds were spiked onto dust (<30% for the majority of compounds). To our knowledge, this is the first study to assess the efficiency of wipes as a sampling method using a large number of compounds at environmental concentrations and synthetic dust. Cellulose wipes appear to be efficient to sample the pesticides and PCBs that adsorb onto dust on smooth and hard surfaces.

Farm residence and lymphohematopoietic cancers in the Iowa Women's Health Study.

BACKGROUND: Cancer incidence in male farmers has been studied extensively; however, less is known about risk among women residing on farms or in agricultural areas, who may be exposed to pesticides by their proximity to crop fields. We extended a previous follow-up of the Iowa Women's Health Study cohort to examine farm residence and the incidence of lymphohematopoietic cancers. Further, we investigated crop acreage within 750 m of residences, which has been associated with higher herbicide levels in Iowa homes. METHODS: We analyzed data for a cohort of 37,099 Iowa women aged 55-69 years who reported their residence location (farm, rural (not a farm), town size based on population) at enrollment in 1986. We identified incident lymphohematopoietic cancers (1986-2009) by linkage with the Iowa Cancer Registry. Using a geographic information system, we geocoded addresses and calculated acreage of pasture and row crops within 750 m of homes using the 1992 National Land Cover Database. Cox regression was used to estimate hazard ratios (HR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) in multivariate analyses of cancer risk in relation to both residence location and crop acreage. RESULTS: As found in an earlier analysis of residence location, risk of acute myeloid leukemia (AML) was higher among women living on farms (HR=2.23, 95%CI: 1.25-3.99) or rural areas (but not on a farm) (HR=1.95, 95%CI: 0.89-4.29) compared with women living in towns of >10,000 population. We observed no association between farm or rural residence and non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL; overall or for major subtypes) or multiple myeloma. In analyses of crop acreage, we observed no association between pasture or row crop acreage within 750 m of homes and risk of leukemia overall or for the AML subtype. Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL)/small lymphocytic lymphoma (SLL) risk was nonsignificantly elevated among women with pasture acreage within 750 m of their home (HRs for increasing tertiles=1.8, 1.8 and 1.5) and with row crop acreage within 750 m (HRs for increasing tertiles of acreage=1.4, 1.5 and 1.6) compared to women with no pasture or row crop acreage, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Iowa women living on a farm or in a rural area were at increased risk of developing AML, which was not related to crop acreage near the home. Living near pasture or row crops may confer an increased risk of CLL/SLL regardless of residence location. Further investigation of specific farm-related exposures and these cancers among women living on farms and in agricultural areas is warranted.

Residential proximity to industrial combustion facilities and risk of non-Hodgkin lymphoma: a case-control study.

BACKGROUND: Residence near municipal solid waste incinerators, a major historical source of dioxin emissions, has been associated with increased risk of non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) in European studies. The aim of our study was to evaluate residence near industrial combustion facilities and estimates of dioxin emissions in relation to NHL risk in the United States. METHODS: We conducted a population-based case-control study of NHL (1998-2000) in four National Cancer Institute-Surveillance Epidemiology and End Results centers (Detroit, Iowa, Los Angeles, Seattle). Residential histories 15 years before diagnosis (similar date for controls) were linked to an Environmental Protection Agency database of dioxin-emitting facilities for 969 cases and 749 controls. We evaluated proximity (3 and 5 km) to 10 facility types that accounted for >85% of U.S. emissions and a distance-weighted average emission index (AEI [ng toxic equivalency quotient (TEQ)/year]). RESULTS: Proximity to any dioxin-emitting facility was not associated with NHL risk (3 km OR = 1.0, 95% CI 0.8-1.3). Risk was elevated for residence near cement kilns (5 km OR = 1.7, 95% CI 0.8-3.3; 3 km OR = 3.8, 95% CI 1.1-14.0) and reduced for residence near municipal solid waste incinerators (5 km OR = 0.5, 95% CI 0.3-0.9; 3 km OR = 0.3, 95% CI 0.1-1.4). The AEI was not associated with risk of NHL overall. Risk for marginal zone lymphoma was increased for the highest versus lowest quartile (5 km OR = 2.6, 95% CI 1.0-6.8; 3 km OR = 3.0, 95% CI 1.1-8.3). CONCLUSIONS: Overall, we found no association with residential exposure to dioxins and NHL risk. However, findings for high emissions and marginal zone lymphoma and for specific facility types and all NHL provide some evidence of an association and deserve future study.

Estimating water supply arsenic levels in the New England Bladder Cancer Study.

BACKGROUND: Ingestion of inorganic arsenic in drinking water is recognized as a cause of bladder cancer when levels are relatively high (≥ 150 µg/L). The epidemiologic evidence is less clear at the low-to-moderate concentrations typically observed in the United States. Accurate retrospective exposure assessment over a long time period is a major challenge in conducting epidemiologic studies of environmental factors and diseases with long latency, such as cancer. OBJECTIVE: We estimated arsenic concentrations in the water supplies of 2,611 participants in a population-based case-control study in northern New England. METHODS: Estimates covered the lifetimes of most study participants and were based on a combination of arsenic measurements at the homes of the participants and statistical modeling of arsenic concentrations in the water supply of both past and current homes. We assigned a residential water supply arsenic concentration for 165,138 (95%) of the total 173,361 lifetime exposure years (EYs) and a workplace water supply arsenic level for 85,195 EYs (86% of reported occupational years). RESULTS: Three methods accounted for 93% of the residential estimates of arsenic concentration: direct measurement of water samples (27%; median, 0.3 µg/L; range, 0.1-11.5), statistical models of water utility measurement data (49%; median, 0.4 µg/L; range, 0.3-3.3), and statistical models of arsenic concentrations in wells using aquifers in New England (17%; median, 1.6 µg/L; range, 0.6-22.4). CONCLUSIONS: We used a different validation procedure for each of the three methods, and found our estimated levels to be comparable with available measured concentrations. This methodology allowed us to calculate potential drinking water exposure over long periods.

Proximity to crops and residential exposure to agricultural herbicides in iowa.

Rural residents can be exposed to agricultural pesticides through the proximity of their homes to crop fields. Previously, we developed a method to create historical crop maps using a geographic information system. The aim of the present study was to determine whether crop maps are useful for predicting levels of crop herbicides in carpet dust samples from residences. From homes of participants in a case-control study of non-Hodgkin lymphoma in Iowa (1998-2000), we collected vacuum cleaner dust and measured 14 herbicides with high use on corn and soybeans in Iowa. Of 112 homes, 58% of residences had crops within 500 m of their home, an intermediate distance for primary drift from aerial and ground applications. Detection rates for herbicides ranged from 0% for metribuzin and cyanazine to 95% for 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid. Six herbicides used almost exclusively in agriculture were detected in 28% of homes. Detections and concentrations were highest in homes with an active farmer. Increasing acreage of corn and soybean fields within 750 m of homes was associated with significantly elevated odds of detecting agricultural herbicides compared with homes with no crops within 750 m (adjusted odds ratio per 10 acres = 1.06; 95% confidence interval, 1.02-1.11). Herbicide concentrations also increased significantly with increasing acreage within 750 m. We evaluated the distance of crop fields from the home at < 100, 101-250, 251-500, and 501-750 m. Including the crop buffer distance parameters in the model did not significantly improve the fit compared with a model with total acres within 750 m. Our results indicate that crop maps may be a useful method for estimating levels of herbicides in homes from nearby crop fields.

Modeling the probability of arsenic in groundwater in New England as a tool for exposure assessment.

We developed a process-based model to predict the probability of arsenic exceeding 5 microg/L in drinking water wells in New England bedrock aquifers. The model is being used for exposure assessment in an epidemiologic study of bladder cancer. One important study hypothesis that may explain increased bladder cancer risk is elevated concentrations of inorganic arsenic in drinking water. In eastern New England, 20-30% of private wells exceed the arsenic drinking water standard of 10 micrograms per liter. Our predictive model significantly improves the understanding of factors associated with arsenic contamination in New England. Specific rock types, high arsenic concentrations in stream sediments, geochemical factors related to areas of Pleistocene marine inundation and proximity to intrusive granitic plutons, and hydrologic and landscape variables relating to groundwater residence time increase the probability of arsenic occurrence in groundwater. Previous studies suggest that arsenic in bedrock groundwater may be partly from past arsenical pesticide use. Variables representing historic agricultural inputs do not improve the model, indicating that this source does not significantly contribute to current arsenic concentrations. Due to the complexity of the fractured bedrock aquifers in the region, well depth and related variables also are not significant predictors.

Geographically based investigation of prostate cancer mortality in four U.S. Northern Plain states.

BACKGROUND: Historically, prostate cancer mortality rates have been elevated in the U.S. Northern Plains states. The purpose of this study was to investigate possible contributing factors, especially whether there was any association with crop patterns. METHODS: Prostate cancer mortality rates (1950-2000) in four northern plains states (MN, MT, ND, and SD) were compared to rates for 46 other U.S. states. Within the four states, county rates in urban, less urban, and rural areas also were compared. For additional analysis, urban counties and counties with <10% of county area in crops were excluded. The average percent of county area in total cropland 1930-1950 and 1954-1974 was estimated. Using Poisson regression, we investigated whether the average percentage of county area in total cropland, 1930-1950 and 1954-1974, was associated with prostate cancer mortality rates, 1975-2000, respectively. Poisson regression analyses were also used to evaluate associations between rates and major crops, which included spring and durum wheat, winter wheat, corn, and other crops. Population centroids of the Census 2000 block groups were used to estimate the percentage of males aged 35 and older residing in close proximity to small grains crops. RESULTS: Mortality rates were higher in rural compared to urban counties in 1950-2000 (rate ratio [RR]=1.032; 95% CI=1.001-1.063). Rates in 1950-1974 were significantly associated with production of corn and other crops in 1930-1950 (corn: RR per 10% increase=1.033, 95% CI=1.012-1.054; other crops: RR=1.042, 95% CI=1.021-1.063). Mortality rates in 1975-2000 were significantly associated with spring and durum wheat production in 1954-1974 (RR per 10% increase=1.042, 95% CI=1.017-1.067). Prostate cancer mortality rates increased as the percentage of population living within 500 m of small grains crops increased. CONCLUSIONS: Epidemiologic studies to evaluate agricultural practices are warranted to further evaluate the observed associations.

Positional accuracy of two methods of geocoding.

BACKGROUND: Geocoding is often used in epidemiologic studies to map residences with geographic information systems (GIS). The accuracy of the method is usually not determined. METHODS: We collected global positioning system (GPS) measurements at homes in a case-control study of non-Hodgkin lymphoma in Iowa. We geocoded the addresses by 2 methods: (1) in-house, using ArcView 3.2 software and the U.S. Census Bureau TIGER 2000 street database; and (2) automated geocoding by a commercial firm. We calculated the distance between the geocoded and GPS location (positional error) overall and separately for homes within towns and outside (rural). We evaluated the error in classifying homes with respect to their proximity to crop fields. RESULTS: Overall, the majority of homes were geocoded with positional errors of less than 100 m by both methods (ArcView/TIGER 2000, median = 62 m [interquartile range = 39-103]; commercial firm, median = 61 m [interquartile range = 35-137]). For town residences, the percent geocoded with errors of

Sampling private wells at past homes to estimate arsenic exposure: a methodologic study in New England.

We are conducting a collaborative, population-based case-control study in Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont to investigate the reasons for the elevated bladder cancer mortality in northern New England. Arsenic in drinking water is one of the primary exposures under investigation. To estimate subjects' lifetime exposure to waterborne arsenic, it will be necessary to obtain water samples from private wells that subjects used in the past. We conducted a methodologic study to assess the feasibility of locating and sampling from private wells at subjects' past residences. Ninety-eight New Hampshire residents (mean age 67 years) completed a questionnaire requesting the complete address, dates of occupancy, and drinking water sources for each home lived in since birth. An interviewer then asked subjects for more detailed information about each home to assist in a field search of past homes in the three-state study area of Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont. Fifty-eight of the 98 subjects indicated that they had used a total of 103 private wells in 95 previous homes located in these three states. We conducted a field search to locate these 95 homes, visited town offices to find the properties on tax maps and obtain the current owners' names and addresses, attempted to obtain permission from the current owners to sample the wells, and collected water samples. In all, 48 (47%) of the 103 past wells in the study area were sampled successfully. The remaining wells were not sampled because the homes were not located (22%) or had been demolished (2%), permission to sample the wells was not obtained (17%), the wells had been destroyed (7%) or could not be found on the grounds of the residence (3%), or for other reasons (2%). Various approaches for improving the success rates for sampling water from private wells are discussed, as is the use of predictive modeling to impute exposures when sampling is not feasible.