Heterogeneous Response of Tumor Cell Lines to Inhibition of Aspartate ß-hydroxylase.

Background: Cancer development involves alterations in key cellular pathways, with aspartate ß-hydroxylase (ASPH) emerging as an important player in tumorigenesis. ASPH is upregulated in various cancer types, where it promotes cancer progression mainly by regulating the Notch1 and SRC pathways. Methods: This study explored the responses of various human cervical, pharyngeal, and breast tumor cell lines to second- and third-generation ASPH inhibitors (MO-I-1151 and MO-I-1182) using proliferation, migration, and invasion assays; western blotting; and cell cycle analysis. Results: ASPH inhibition significantly reduced cell proliferation, migration, and invasion and disrupted both the canonical and noncanonical Notch1 pathways. The noncanonical pathway was particularly mediated by AKT signaling. Cell cycle analysis revealed a marked reduction in cyclin D1 expression, further confirming the inhibitory effect of ASPH inhibitors on cell proliferation. Additional analysis revealed G0/G1 arrest and restricted progression into S phase, highlighting the regulatory impact of ASPH inhibitors on the cell cycle. Furthermore, ASPH inhibition induced distinctive alterations in nuclear morphology. The high heterogeneity in the responses of individual tumor cell lines to ASPH inhibitors, both quantitatively and qualitatively, underscores the complex network of mechanisms that are regulated by ASPH and influence the efficacy of ASPH inhibition. The effects of ASPH inhibitors on Notch1 pathway activity, cyclin D1 expression, and nuclear morphology contribute to the understanding of the multifaceted effects of these inhibitors on cancer cell behavior. Conclusion: This study not only suggests that ASPH inhibitors are effective against tumor cell progression, in part through the induction of cell cycle arrest, but also highlights the diverse and heterogeneous effects of these inhibitors on the behavior of tumor cells of different origins.

Distinct Responsiveness of Tumor-Associated Macrophages to Immunotherapy of Tumors with Different Mechanisms of Major Histocompatibility Complex Class I Downregulation.

Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) plentifully infiltrate the tumor microenvironment (TME), but their role in anti-tumor immunity is controversial. Depending on the acquired polarization, they can either support tumor growth or participate in the elimination of neoplastic cells. In this study, we analyzed the TME by RNA-seq and flow cytometry and examined TAMs after ex vivo activation. Tumors with normal and either reversibly or irreversibly decreased expression of major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC-I) molecules were induced with TC-1, TC-1/A9, and TC-1/dB2m cells, respectively. We found that combined immunotherapy (IT), composed of DNA immunization and the CpG oligodeoxynucleotide (ODN) ODN1826, evoked immune reactions in the TME of TC-1- and TC-1/A9-induced tumors, while the TME of TC-1/dB2m tumors was mostly immunologically unresponsive. TAMs infiltrated both tumor types with MHC-I downregulation, but only TAMs from TC-1/A9 tumors acquired the M1 phenotype upon IT and were cytotoxic in in vitro assay. The anti-tumor effect of combined IT was markedly enhanced by a blockade of the colony-stimulating factor-1 receptor (CSF-1R), but only against TC-1/A9 tumors. Overall, TAMs from tumors with irreversible MHC-I downregulation were resistant to the stimulation of cytotoxic activity. These data suggest the dissimilarity of TAMs from different tumor types, which should be considered when utilizing TAMs in cancer IT.

CD80 Expression on Tumor Cells Alters Tumor Microenvironment and Efficacy of Cancer Immunotherapy by CTLA-4 Blockade.

Cluster of differentiation (CD) 80 is mainly expressed in immune cells but can also be found in several types of cancer cells. This molecule may either activate or inhibit immune reactions. Here, we determined the immunosuppressive role of CD80 in the tumor microenvironment by CRISPR/Cas9-mediated deactivation of the corresponding gene in the mouse oncogenic TC-1 cell line. The tumor cells with deactivated CD80 (TC-1/dCD80-1) were more immunogenic than parental cells and induced tumors that gained sensitivity to cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen 4 (CTLA-4) blockade, as compared with the TC-1 cells. In vivo depletion experiments showed that the deactivation of CD80 switched the pro-tumorigenic effect of macrophages observed in TC-1-induced tumors into an anti-tumorigenic effect in TC-1/dCD80-1 tumors and induced the pro-tumorigenic activity of CD4+ cells. Moreover, the frequency of lymphoid and myeloid cells and the CTLA-4 expression by T helper (Th)17 cells were increased in TC-1/dCD80-1- compared with that in the TC-1-induced tumors. CTLA-4 blockade downregulated the frequencies of most immune cell types and upregulated the frequency of M2 macrophages in the TC-1 tumors, while it increased the frequency of lymphoid cells in TC-1/dCD80-1-induced tumors. Furthermore, the anti-CTLA-4 therapy enhanced the frequency of CD8+ T cells as well as CD4+ T cells, especially for a Th1 subset. Regulatory T cells (Treg) formed the most abundant CD4+ T cell subset in untreated tumors. The anti-CTLA-4 treatment downregulated the frequency of Treg cells with limited immunosuppressive potential in the TC-1 tumors, whereas it enriched this type of Treg cells and decreased the Treg cells with high immunosuppressive potential in TC-1/dCD80-1-induced tumors. The immunosuppressive role of tumor-cell-expressed CD80 should be considered in research into biomarkers for the prediction of cancer patients' sensitivity to immune checkpoint inhibitors and for the development of a tumor-cell-specific CD80 blockade.

Abrogation of IFN-γ Signaling May not Worsen Sensitivity to PD-1/PD-L1 Blockade.

Programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1)/PD-1 ligand 1 (PD-L1) blockade is a promising therapy for various cancer types, but most patients are still resistant. Therefore, a larger number of predictive biomarkers is necessary. In this study, we assessed whether a loss-of-function mutation of the interferon (IFN)-γ receptor 1 (IFNGR1) in tumor cells can interfere with anti-PD-L1 therapy. For this purpose, we used the mouse oncogenic TC-1 cell line expressing PD-L1 and major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC-I) molecules and its TC-1/A9 clone with reversibly downregulated PD-L1 and MHC-I expression. Using the CRISPR/Cas9 system, we generated cells with deactivated IFNGR1 (TC-1/dIfngr1 and TC-1/A9/dIfngr1). In tumors, IFNGR1 deactivation did not lead to PD-L1 or MHC-I reduction on tumor cells. From potential inducers, mainly IFN-α and IFN-ß enhanced PD-L1 and MHC-I expression on TC-1/dIfngr1 and TC-1/A9/dIfngr1 cells in vitro. Neutralization of the IFN-α/IFN-ß receptor confirmed the effect of these cytokines in vivo. Combined immunotherapy with PD-L1 blockade and DNA vaccination showed that IFNGR1 deactivation did not reduce tumor sensitivity to anti-PD-L1. Thus, the impairment of IFN-γ signaling may not be sufficient for PD-L1 and MHC-I reduction on tumor cells and resistance to PD-L1 blockade, and thus should not be used as a single predictive marker for anti-PD-1/PD-L1 cancer therapy.

Establishment and characterization of a mouse tumor cell line with irreversible downregulation of MHC class I molecules.

In the majority of human tumors, downregulation of major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC­I) expression contributes to the escape from the host immune system and resistance to immunotherapy. Relevant animal models are therefore needed to enhance the efficacy of cancer immunotherapy. As loss of ß­2 microglobulin expression results in irreversible downregulation of surface MHC­I molecules in various human tumors, the ß­2 microglobulin gene (B2m) was deactivated in a mouse oncogenic TC­1 cell line and a TC­1/dB2m cell line that was negative for surface MHC­I expression was derived. Following stimulation with interferon γ, MHC­I heavy chains, particularly the H­2Db molecules, were found to be expressed at low levels on the cell surface, but without ß­2 microglobulin. B2m deactivation in TC­1/dB2m cells led to reduced proliferation and tumor growth. These cells were insensitive to DNA vaccination and only weakly responsive to combined immunotherapy with a DNA vaccine and the ODN1826 adjuvant. In vivo depletion demonstrated that NK1.1+ cells were involved in both reduced tumor growth and an antitumor effect of immunotherapy. The number of immune cells infiltrating TC­1/dB2m­induced tumors was comparable with that in tumors developing from TC­1/A9 cells characterized by reversible MHC­I downregulation. However, the composition of the cell infiltrate was different and, most importantly, infiltration with immune cells was not increased in TC­1/dB2m tumors after immunotherapy. Therefore, the TC­1/dB2m cell line represents a clinically relevant tumor model that may be used for enhancement of cancer immunotherapy.

Implementation of Mass Cytometry for Immunoprofiling of Patients with Solid Tumors.

Monitoring immune responses to solid cancers may be a better prognostic tool than conventional staging criteria, and it can also serve as an important criterion for the selection of individualized therapy. Multiparametric phenotyping by mass cytometry extended possibilities for immunoprofiling. However, careful optimization of each step of such method is necessary for obtaining reliable results. Also, with respect to procedure length and costs, sample preparation, staining, and storage should be optimized. Here, we designed a panel of 31 antibodies which allows for identification of several subpopulations of lymphoid and myeloid cells in a solid tumor and peripheral blood simultaneously. For sample preparation, disaggregation of tumor tissue with two different collagenases combined with DNase I was compared, and removal of dead or tumor cells by magnetic separation was evaluated. Two possible procedures of barcoding for single-tube staining of several samples were examined. While the palladium-based barcoding affected the stability of several antigens, the staining with two differently labeled CD45 antibodies was suitable for cells isolated from a patient's blood and tumor. The storage of samples in the intercalation solution for up to two weeks did not influence results of the analysis, which allowed the measurement of samples collected within this interval on the same day. This procedure optimized on samples from patients with head and neck squamous cell carcinoma enabled identification of various immune cells including rare subpopulations.

Experimental Combined Immunotherapy of Tumours with Major Histocompatibility Complex Class I Downregulation.

Combined immunotherapy constitutes a novel, advanced strategy in cancer treatment. In this study, we investigated immunotherapy in the mouse TC-1/A9 model of human papillomavirus type 16 (HPV16)-associated tumors characterized by major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC-I) downregulation. We found that the induction of a significant anti-tumor response required a combination of DNA vaccination with the administration of an adjuvant, either the synthetic oligodeoxynucleotide ODN1826, carrying immunostimulatory CpG motifs, or α-galactosylceramide (α-GalCer). The most profound anti-tumor effect was achieved when these adjuvants were applied in a mix with a one-week delay relative to DNA immunization. Combined immunotherapy induced tumor infiltration with various subsets of immune cells contributing to tumor regression, of which cluster of differentiation (CD) 8⁺ T cells were the predominant subpopulation. In contrast, the numbers of tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) were not markedly increased after immunotherapy but in vivo and in vitro results showed that they could be repolarized to an anti-tumor M1 phenotype. A blockade of T cell immunoglobulin and mucin-domain containing-3 (Tim-3) immune checkpoint had a negligible effect on anti-tumor immunity and TAMs repolarization. Our results demonstrate a benefit of combined immunotherapy comprising the activation of both adaptive and innate immunity in the treatment of tumors with reduced MHC-I expression.

Evaluation of IFN-γ Enzyme-linked Immunospot Assay (ELISPOT) as a First-line Test in the Diagnosis of Non-Immediate Hypersensitivity to Amoxicillin and Penicillin.

The current diagnostic algorithm for beta-lactam allergy is based on skin and provocation tests, both of which carry a certain risk of inducing hypersensitivity reactions. Thus, non-invasive in vitro tests reliable enough to replace skin and provocation tests at least in a portion of patients are desirable. We aimed to verify the utility of IFN-γ ELISPOT as a first-line test in patients with suspected non-immediate hypersensitivity reaction to amoxicillin (AMX) and penicillin (PNC). The prospective observational study included 24 patients with recent, suspected non-immediate hypersensitivity reaction to AMX or PNC and 6 recently-exposed healthy subjects. In vitro tests were performed in all patients and healthy subjects: a) IFN-γ ELISPOT with PNC, AMX and amoxicillin plus clavulanic acid (AMX-CL); b) penicillin specific IgE; c) basophil activation test (BAT). Skin and provocation tests followed only in certain patients. IFN-γ ELISPOT results with PNC and AMX stimulation did not differ from the unstimulated condition. The highest IFN-γ responses to AMX-CL were close to previously published criteria in three patients; one of which had true hypersensitivity according to drug provocation tests. Five patients with confirmed hypersensitivity by skin tests showed no response to the culprit antibiotic on IFN-γ ELISPOT assay. Our results did not support the utility of IFN-γ ELISPOT in the diagnosis of mild, non-immediate hypersensitivity to amoxicillin and penicillin.

Combined Cancer Immunotherapy Against Aurora Kinase A.

Aurora kinase A (AURKA) is a centrosomal protein that is overexpressed in a number of human malignancies and can contribute to tumor progression. As we used this protein as a target of DNA immunization, we increased its immunogenicity by the addition of the PADRE helper epitope and decreased its potential oncogenicity by mutagenesis of the kinase domain. For in vitro analysis of induced immune responses in mice, we identified the Aurka(220-228) nonapeptide representing an H-2Kb epitope. As DNA vaccination against the Aurka self-antigen by a gene gun did not show any antitumor effect, we combined DNA immunization with anti-CD25 treatment that depletes mainly regulatory T cells. Whereas 1 anti-CD25 dose injected before DNA vaccination did not enhance the activation of Aurka-specific splenocytes, 3 doses administered on days of immunizations augmented about 10-fold immunity against Aurka. However, an opposite effect was found for antitumor immunity-only 1 anti-CD25 dose combined with DNA vaccination reduced tumor growth. Moreover, the administration of 3 doses of anti-CD25 antibody alone accelerated tumor growth. Analysis of tumor-infiltrating cells showed that 3 anti-CD25 doses not only efficiently depleted regulatory T cells but also activated helper T cells and CD3(-)CD25(+) cells. Next, we found that blockade of the PD-1 receptor initiated 1 week after the first immunization was necessary for significant inhibition of tumor growth with therapeutic DNA vaccination against Aurka combined with depletion of CD25 cells. Our results suggest that combined cancer immunotherapy should be carefully evaluated to achieve the optimal antitumor effect.

Enhancement of DNA vaccine potency against legumain.

The asparaginyl endopeptidase legumain that is overexpressed in M2-polarized tumor-associated macrophages has been identified as a suitable target for elimination of these cells supporting tumor progression. To enhance the efficacy of DNA immunization against legumain, we performed several modifications in this protein that could improve induction of immune responses. First, we mutated the RGD motif into GGD or RGG sequences. This alteration resulted in diminished maturation of legumain and impaired cellular localization. Then, as tolerance to self-antigens can be broken by the activation of CD4 T-cell help, we tried to enhance the immunogenicity of legumain by the insertion of a foreign helper epitope, namely the p30 epitope from the tetanus toxin. Finally, the 2 modifications were combined. After gene gun DNA immunization of C57BL/6 mice with these constructs, we identified the Lgmn111-119 CD8 T-cell epitope that binds to H-2D molecules. Furthermore, we showed that mutagenesis in the RGD motif significantly enhanced the immune response against legumain. The addition of the p30 helper epitope induced the specific production of IFN-γ by T cells, but did not significantly increase legumain-specific immunity activated after mutagenesis in the RGD motif which might be caused by simultaneous activation of a Th2 response demonstrated by the production of IL-4. However, the beneficial effect of the helper epitope on legumain-specific response was proved after the depletion of regulatory T cells by antibody against CD25 that preferentially stimulated Th1 immunity. The antitumor effect of the modified legumain gene was shown in the immunization against tumors induced by MK16 cells.

Antitumor DNA vaccination against the Sox2 transcription factor.

As cancer stem cells (CSCs) are resistant to chemotherapy, radiotherapy and targeted molecular therapy, immunotherapy of tumors could be aimed at their elimination. Markers specific for CSCs have not been identified to date, but microarray analyses have shown that CSCs and embryonic stem cells use similar transcriptional programs, thus suggesting the production of shared transcription factors. In this study, we developed an experimental DNA vaccine against the transcription factor Sox2 that is important for self-renewal of stem cells and is overexpressed in numerous human cancers. The Sox2 gene was codon optimized for the expression in human cells, its sequences encoding two nuclear localization signals (NLSs) were mutagenized, and the sequence coding for the PADRE helper epitope was fused with its 5' terminus. While codon optimization did not increase Sox2 production and mutagenesis in NLSs only partially reduced nuclear localization of Sox2, the addition of the PADRE epitope was crucial for the enhancement of Sox2 immunogenicity. The antitumor effect was shown after immunization against mouse oncogenic TC-1/B7 cells derived from the lung cancer cell line TC-1 and characterized by high Sox2 production. Sox2-specific reactivity in an ELISPOT assay was further augmented by the depletion of regulatory T (Treg) cells, but this depletion did not enhance the antitumor effect. These data demonstrated the induction of immune responses against the Sox2 self-antigen, but did not confirm the usefulness of Treg depletion when combined with antitumor vaccination.

Systemic administration of CpG oligodeoxynucleotide and levamisole as adjuvants for gene-gun-delivered antitumor DNA vaccines.

DNA vaccines showed great promise in preclinical models of infectious and malignant diseases, but their potency was insufficient in clinical trials and is needed to be improved. In this study, we tested systemic administration of two conventional adjuvants, synthetic oligodeoxynucleotide carrying immunostimulatory CpG motifs (CpG-ODN) and levamisole (LMS), and evaluated their effect on immune reactions induced by DNA vaccines delivered by a gene gun. DNA vaccination was directed either against the E7 oncoprotein of human papillomavirus type 16 or against the BCR-ABL1 oncoprotein characteristic for chronic myeloid leukemia. High doses of both adjuvants reduced activation of mouse splenic CD8(+) T lymphocytes, but the overall antitumor effect was enhanced in both tumor models. High-dose CpG-ODN exhibited a superior adjuvant effect in comparison with any combination of CpG-ODN with LMS. In summary, our results demonstrate the benefit of combined therapy with gene-gun-delivered antitumor DNA vaccines and systemic administration of CpG-ODN or LMS.

DNA vaccine against human papillomavirus type 16: modifications of the E6 oncogene.

Since its discovery, DNA vaccination has become an effective strategy for the development of vaccines against cancer including cervical carcinoma (CC). The formation of CC is associated with human papillomavirus (HPV) infection. Viral E6 and E7 oncoproteins are suitable targets for therapeutic vaccination. To adapt the HPV16 E6 oncogene for DNA immunisation, we performed several modifications. First we fused the E6 gene with the 5' or 3'-terminus of the Escherichia coli beta-glucuronidase (GUS) gene and showed enhanced immunogenicity of the 3' fusion (GUS.E6). Then, as the E6 oncogene contains two alternative introns that result in the production of truncated forms of the E6 protein, we abolished the 5' splice site in the E6 gene. This modification completely eliminated the expression of the truncated E6 transcripts and thus increased the production of the full-length E6 protein. At the same time, it moderately reduced the immunogenicity of the modified non-fused (E6cc) or fused (GUS.E6cc) genes, probably as a consequence of the substitution in the immunodominant E6 epitope following the abolishment of the splice site. Furthermore, we reduced the oncogenicity of the E6 protein by two point mutations (E6GT) that, together, prevented E6-mediated p53 degradation. Finally, we constructed the GUS.E6GT gene characterized by enhanced safety and immunogenicity when compared with the wild-type E6 gene.

Vaccination with human papillomavirus type 16-derived peptides using a tattoo device.

Tattooing has been shown to be very efficient at inducing immunity by vaccination with DNA vaccines. In this study, we examined the usability of tattooing for delivery of peptide vaccines. We compared tattooing with subcutaneous (s.c.) needle injection using peptides derived from human papillomavirus type 16 (HPV16) proteins. We observed that higher peptide-specific immune responses were elicited after vaccination with the simple peptides (E7(44-62) and E7(49-57)) and keyhole limpet hemocyanin-(KLH)-conjugated peptides (E7(49-57), L2(18-38) and L2(108-120)) with a tattoo device compared to s.c. inoculation. The administration of the synthetic oligonucleotide containing immunostimulatory CpG motifs (ODN1826) enhanced the immune responses developed after s.c. injection of some peptides (E7(44-62), KLH-conjugated L2(18-38) and L2(108-120)) to levels close to or even comparable to those after tattoo delivery of identical peptides with ODN1826. The highest efficacy of tattooing was observed in combination with ODN1826 for the vaccination with the less immunogenic E6(48-57) peptide and KLH-conjugated and non-conjugated E7(49-57) peptides which form the visible aggregates that could negatively influence the development of immune responses after s.c. injection but probably not after tattooing. In summary, we first evidenced that tattoo administration of peptide vaccines that might be useful in some cases efficiently induced both humoral and cell-mediated immune responses.

Enhancement of T cell-mediated and humoral immunity of beta-glucuronidase-based DNA vaccines against HPV16 E7 oncoprotein.

Therapeutic DNA vaccines against oncogenic infection with human papillomavirus type 16 (HPV16) are mostly targeted against viral oncoproteins E7 and E6. To adapt the E7 oncoprotein for DNA immunization, we have previously reduced its oncogenicity by modification of the Rb-binding site and enhanced immunogenicity of the modified E7GGG gene by the fusion with the 5'-terminus of the gene encoding E. coli beta-glucuronidase (GUS). In this study, we attempted to improve immunogenicity of the GUS-based anti-E7 vaccines by increasing the steady-state level of fusion proteins. We fused deletion mutants of E7GGG and codon-optimized E7GGG with the 5'-terminus of GUS and unaltered E7GGG with the 3'-terminus of GUS. Furthermore, we mutated the initiation codon of the GUS gene in the E7GGG.GUS construct, as GUS alone was produced from this fusion gene. We found that only the fusion of E7GGG with the 3'-terminus of GUS (GUS.E7GGG) and deletion mutants of E7GGG with the 5'-terminus of GUS increased the steady-state level of fusion proteins in transfected human 293T cells. Analysis of immune reactions induced in mice by vaccination via a gene gun showed that the increased steady-state level of fusion proteins resulted in augmented production of E7-specific antibodies, but did not enhance cell-mediated anti-tumor immunity. Finally, we joined the signal sequence of the adenoviral E3 protein with GUS.E7GGG. This modification led to the predominant localization of the fusion protein in the endoplasmic reticulum and enhancement of CD8+ T-cell response, while antibody production was reduced. In conclusion, we found modifications of the E7GGG.GUS fusion gene that augmented either humoral or cell-mediated immune responses.

Mutation in the immunodominant epitope of the HPV16 E7 oncoprotein as a mechanism of tumor escape.

Infection with high-risk types of human papillomavirus (HPV) can cause the development of malignant tumors. To study mechanisms responsible for immune escape of tumor cells infected with HPV16, we previously used mouse oncogenic TC-1 cells producing HPV16 E6 and E7 oncoproteins to derive TC-1 clones resistant to immunization against E7. We have found immunoresistance of the clones to correlate with the point mutation in the E7 oncogene, which resulted in the N53S substitution in the immunodominant epitope RAHYNIVTF (aa 49-57). Here, we have shown that this mutation reduced stabilization of H-2D(b) molecules on RMA-S cells and eliminated immunogenicity of E7. The resistance of TC-1 clones was E7-specific as immunization against E6 inhibited tumor growth. Transduction of the TC-1/F9 clone carrying the mutated epitope with the wild-type E7 gene restored susceptibility to immunization against E7. Our results suggest that mutagenesis of tumor antigens can lead to the escape of malignant cells and should be considered in the development and evaluation of cancer immunotherapy.