Independent loss events of a functional tetherin gene in galliform birds.

IMPORTANCE: Birds represent important hosts for numerous viruses, including zoonotic viruses and pathogens with the potential to cause major economic losses to the poultry industry. Viral replication and transmission can be inhibited or blocked by the action of antiviral restriction factors (RFs) encoded by the host. One well-characterized RF is tetherin, a protein that directly blocks the release of newly formed viral particles from infected cells. Here, we describe the evolutionary loss of a functional tetherin gene in two galliform birds, turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) and Mikado pheasant (Syrmaticus mikado). Moreover, we demonstrate that the structurally related protein TMCC(aT) exerts antiviral activity in several birds, albeit by a mechanism different from that of tetherin. The evolutionary scenario described here represents the first documented loss-of-tetherin cases in vertebrates.

Knock-Out of Retrovirus Receptor Gene Tva in the Chicken Confers Resistance to Avian Leukosis Virus Subgroups A and K and Affects Cobalamin (Vitamin B12)-Dependent Level of Methylmalonic Acid.

The chicken Tva cell surface protein, a member of the low-density lipoprotein receptor family, has been identified as an entry receptor for avian leukosis virus of classic subgroup A and newly emerging subgroup K. Because both viruses represent an important concern for the poultry industry, we introduced a frame-shifting deletion into the chicken tva locus with the aim of knocking-out Tva expression and creating a virus-resistant chicken line. The tva knock-out was prepared by CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing in chicken primordial germ cells and orthotopic transplantation of edited cells into the testes of sterilized recipient roosters. The resulting tva -/- chickens tested fully resistant to avian leukosis virus subgroups A and K, both in in vitro and in vivo assays, in contrast to their susceptible tva +/+ and tva +/- siblings. We also found a specific disorder of the cobalamin/vitamin B12 metabolism in the tva knock-out chickens, which is in accordance with the recently recognized physiological function of Tva as a receptor for cobalamin in complex with transcobalamin transporter. Last but not least, we bring a new example of the de novo resistance created by CRISPR/Cas9 editing of pathogen dependence genes in farm animals and, furthermore, a new example of gene editing in chicken.

The avian retroviral receptor Tva mediates the uptake of transcobalamin bound vitamin B12 (cobalamin).

The Avian sarcoma and leukosis viruses (ASLVs) are important chicken pathogens. Some of the virus subgroups, including ASLV-A and K, utilize the Tva receptor for cell entrance. Though Tva was identified three decades ago, its physiological function remains unknown. Previously, we have noted an intriguing resemblance and orthology between the chicken gene coding for Tva and the human gene coding for CD320, a receptor involved in cellular uptake of transcobalamin (TC) in complex with vitamin B12/cobalamin (Cbl).Here we show that both the transmembrane and the glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)-anchored form of Tva in the chicken cell line DF-1 promotes the uptake of Cbl with help of expressed and purified chicken TC. The uptake of TC-Cbl complex was monitored using an isotope- or fluorophore-labeled Cbl. We show that (i) TC-Cbl is internalized in chicken cells; and (ii) the uptake is lower in the Tva-knockout cells and higher in Tva-overexpressing cells when compared with wild type chicken cells. The relation between physiological function of Tva and its role in infection was elaborated by showing that infection with ASLV subgroups (targeting Tva) impairs the uptake of TC-Cbl, while this is not the case for cells infected with ASLV-B (not recognized by Tva). In addition, exposure of the cells to a high concentration of TC-Cbl alleviates the infection with Tva-dependent ASLV.IMPORTANCE: We demonstrate that the ASLV receptor Tva participates in the physiological uptake of TC-Cbl, because the viral infection suppresses the uptake of Cbl and vice versa. Our results pave the road for future studies addressing the issues: (i) whether a virus infection can be inhibited by TC-Cbl complexes in vivo; and (ii) whether any human virus employs the human TC-Cbl receptor CD320. In broader terms, our study sheds light on the intricate interplay between physiological roles of cellular receptors and their involvement in virus infection.

Precise CRISPR/Cas9 editing of the NHE1 gene renders chickens resistant to the J subgroup of avian leukosis virus.

Avian leukosis virus subgroup J (ALV-J) is an important concern for the poultry industry. Replication of ALV-J depends on a functional cellular receptor, the chicken Na+/H+ exchanger type 1 (chNHE1). Tryptophan residue number 38 of chNHE1 (W38) in the extracellular portion of this molecule is a critical amino acid for virus entry. We describe a CRISPR/Cas9-mediated deletion of W38 in chicken primordial germ cells and the successful production of the gene-edited birds. The resistance to ALV-J was examined both in vitro and in vivo, and the ΔW38 homozygous chickens tested ALV-J-resistant, in contrast to ΔW38 heterozygotes and wild-type birds, which were ALV-J-susceptible. Deletion of W38 did not manifest any visible side effect. Our data clearly demonstrate the antiviral resistance conferred by precise CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing in the chicken. Furthermore, our highly efficient CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing in primordial germ cells represents a substantial addition to genotechnology in the chicken, an important food source and research model.

The Novel Avian Leukosis Virus Subgroup K Shares Its Cellular Receptor with Subgroup A.

Avian leukosis virus subgroup K (ALV-K) is composed of newly emerging isolates, which, in sequence analyses, cluster separately from the well-characterized subgroups A, B, C, D, E, and J. However, it remains unclear whether ALV-K represents an independent ALV subgroup with regard to receptor usage, host range, and superinfection interference. In the present study, we examined the host range of the Chinese infectious isolate JS11C1, an ALV-K prototype, and we found substantial overlap of species that were either resistant or susceptible to ALV-A and JS11C1. Ectopic expression of the chicken tva gene in mammalian cells conferred susceptibility to JS11C1, while genetic ablation of the tva gene rendered chicken DF-1 cells resistant to infection by JS11C1. Thus, tva expression is both sufficient and necessary for JS11C1 entry. Receptor sharing was also manifested in superinfection interference, with preinfection of cells with ALV-A, but not ALV-B or ALV-J, blocking subsequent JS11C1 infection. Finally, direct binding of JS11C1 and Tva was demonstrated by preincubation of the virus with soluble Tva, which substantially decreased viral infectivity in susceptible chicken cells. Collectively, these findings indicate that JS11C1 represents a new and bona fide ALV subgroup that utilizes Tva for cell entry and binds to a site other than that for ALV-A.IMPORTANCE ALV consists of several subgroups that are particularly characterized by their receptor usage, which subsequently dictates the host range and tropism of the virus. A few newly emerging and highly pathogenic Chinese ALV strains have recently been suggested to be an independent subgroup, ALV-K, based solely on their genomic sequences. Here, we performed a series of experiments with the ALV-K strain JS11C1, which showed its dependence on the Tva cell surface receptor. Due to the sharing of this receptor with ALV-A, both subgroups were able to interfere with superinfection. Because ALV-K could become an important pathogen and a significant threat to the poultry industry in Asia, the identification of a specific receptor could help in the breeding of resistant chicken lines with receptor variants with decreased susceptibility to the virus.

Genetic Resistance to Avian Leukosis Viruses Induced by CRISPR/Cas9 Editing of Specific Receptor Genes in Chicken Cells.

Avian leukosis viruses (ALVs), which are pathogens of concern in domestic poultry, utilize specific receptor proteins for cell entry that are both necessary and sufficient for host susceptibility to a given ALV subgroup. This unequivocal relationship offers receptors as suitable targets of selection and biotechnological manipulation with the aim of obtaining virus-resistant poultry. This approach is further supported by the existence of natural knock-outs of receptor genes that segregate in inbred lines of chickens. We used CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing tools to introduce frame-shifting indel mutations into tva, tvc, and tvj loci encoding receptors for the A, C, and J ALV subgroups, respectively. For all three loci, the homozygous frame-shifting indels generating premature stop codons induced phenotypes which were fully resistant to the virus of respective subgroup. In the tvj locus, we also obtained in-frame deletions corroborating the importance of W38 and the four amino-acids preceding it. We demonstrate that CRISPR/Cas9-mediated knock-out or the fine editing of ALV receptor genes might be the first step in the development of virus-resistant chickens.

Identification of New World Quails Susceptible to Infection with Avian Leukosis Virus Subgroup J.

The J subgroup of avian leukosis virus (ALV-J) infects domestic chickens, jungle fowl, and turkeys. This virus enters the host cell through a receptor encoded by the tvj locus and identified as Na+/H+ exchanger 1. The resistance to avian leukosis virus subgroup J in a great majority of galliform species has been explained by deletions or substitutions of the critical tryptophan 38 in the first extracellular loop of Na+/H+ exchanger 1. Because there are concerns of transspecies virus transmission, we studied natural polymorphisms and susceptibility/resistance in wild galliforms and found the presence of tryptophan 38 in four species of New World quails. The embryo fibroblasts of New World quails are susceptible to infection with avian leukosis virus subgroup J, and the cloned Na+/H+ exchanger 1 confers susceptibility on the otherwise resistant host. New World quails are also susceptible to new avian leukosis virus subgroup J variants but resistant to subgroups A and B and weakly susceptible to subgroups C and D of avian sarcoma/leukosis virus due to obvious defects of the respective receptors. Our results suggest that the avian leukosis virus subgroup J could be transmitted to New World quails and establish a natural reservoir of circulating virus with a potential for further evolution. IMPORTANCE: Since its spread in broiler chickens in China and Southeast Asia in 2000, ALV-J remains a major enzootic challenge for the poultry industry. Although the virus diversifies rapidly in the poultry, its spillover and circulation in wild bird species has been prevented by the resistance of most species to ALV-J. It is, nevertheless, important to understand the evolution of the virus and its potential host range in wild birds. Because resistance to avian retroviruses is due particularly to receptor incompatibility, we studied Na+/H+ exchanger 1, the receptor for ALV-J. In New World quails, we found a receptor compatible with virus entry, and we confirmed the susceptibilities of four New World quail species in vitro We propose that a prospective molecular epidemiology study be conducted to identify species with the potential to become reservoirs for ALV-J.

Nonconserved tryptophan 38 of the cell surface receptor for subgroup J avian leukosis virus discriminates sensitive from resistant avian species.

Subgroup J avian leukosis virus (ALV-J) is unique among the avian sarcoma and leukosis viruses in using the multimembrane-spanning cell surface protein Na(+)/H(+) exchanger type 1 (NHE1) as a receptor. The precise localization of amino acids critical for NHE1 receptor activity is key in understanding the virus-receptor interaction and potential interference with virus entry. Because no resistant chicken lines have been described until now, we compared the NHE1 amino acid sequences from permissive and resistant galliform species. In all resistant species, the deletion or substitution of W38 within the first extracellular loop was observed either alone or in the presence of other incidental amino acid changes. Using the ectopic expression of wild-type or mutated chicken NHE1 in resistant cells and infection with a reporter recombinant retrovirus of subgroup J specificity, we studied the effect of individual mutations on the NHE1 receptor capacity. We suggest that the absence of W38 abrogates binding of the subgroup J envelope glycoprotein to ALV-J-resistant cells. Altogether, we describe the functional importance of W38 for virus entry and conclude that natural polymorphisms in NHE1 can be a source of host resistance to ALV-J.

Intronic deletions that disrupt mRNA splicing of the tva receptor gene result in decreased susceptibility to infection by avian sarcoma and leukosis virus subgroup A.

The group of closely related avian sarcoma and leukosis viruses (ASLVs) evolved from a common ancestor into multiple subgroups, A to J, with differential host range among galliform species and chicken lines. These subgroups differ in variable parts of their envelope glycoproteins, the major determinants of virus interaction with specific receptor molecules. Three genetic loci, tva, tvb, and tvc, code for single membrane-spanning receptors from diverse protein families that confer susceptibility to the ASLV subgroups. The host range expansion of the ancestral virus might have been driven by gradual evolution of resistance in host cells, and the resistance alleles in all three receptor loci have been identified. Here, we characterized two alleles of the tva receptor gene with similar intronic deletions comprising the deduced branch-point signal within the first intron and leading to inefficient splicing of tva mRNA. As a result, we observed decreased susceptibility to subgroup A ASLV in vitro and in vivo. These alleles were independently found in a close-bred line of domestic chicken and Indian red jungle fowl (Gallus gallus murghi), suggesting that their prevalence might be much wider in outbred chicken breeds. We identified defective splicing to be a mechanism of resistance to ASLV and conclude that such a type of mutation could play an important role in virus-host coevolution.

Proviruses selected for high and stable expression of transduced genes accumulate in broadly transcribed genome areas.

Retroviruses and retrovirus-derived vectors integrate nonrandomly into the genomes of host cells with specific preferences for transcribed genes, gene-rich regions, and CpG islands. However, the genomic features that influence the transcriptional activities of integrated retroviruses or retroviral vectors are poorly understood. We report here the cloning and characterization of avian sarcoma virus integration sites from chicken tumors. Growing progressively, dependent on high and stable expression of the transduced v-src oncogene, these tumors represent clonal expansions of cells bearing transcriptionally active replication-defective proviruses. Therefore, integration sites in our study distinguished genomic loci favorable for the expression of integrated retroviruses and gene transfer vectors. Analysis of integration sites from avian sarcoma virus-induced tumors showed strikingly nonrandom distribution, with proviruses found prevalently within or close to transcription units, particularly in genes broadly expressed in multiple tissues but not in tissue-specifically expressed genes. We infer that proviruses integrated in these genomic areas efficiently avoid transcriptional silencing and remain active for a long time during the growth of tumors. Defining the differences between unselected retroviral integration sites and sites selected for long-terminal-repeat-driven gene expression is relevant for retrovirus-mediated gene transfer and has ramifications for gene therapy.

A single-amino-acid substitution in the TvbS1 receptor results in decreased susceptibility to infection by avian sarcoma and leukosis virus subgroups B and D and resistance to infection by subgroup E in vitro and in vivo.

The avian sarcoma and leukosis virus (ASLV) family of retroviruses contains five highly related envelope subgroups (A to E) thought to have evolved from a common viral ancestor in the chicken population. Three genetic loci in chickens determine the susceptibility or resistance of cells to infection by the subgroup A to E ASLVs. Some inbred lines of chickens display phenotypes that are somewhere in between either efficiently susceptible or resistant to infection by specific subgroups of ASLV. The tvb gene encodes the receptor for subgroups B, D, and E ASLVs. The wild-type Tvb(S1) receptor confers susceptibility to subgroups B, D, and E ASLVs. In this study, the genetic defect that accounts for the altered susceptibility of an inbred chicken line, line M, to infection by ASLV(B), ASLV(D), and ASLV(E) was identified. The tvb gene in line M, tvb(r2), encodes a mutant Tvb(S1) receptor protein with a substitution of a serine for a cysteine at position 125 (C125S). Here, we show that the C125S substitution in Tvb(S1) significantly reduces the susceptibility of line M cells to infection by ASLV(B) and ASLV(D) and virtually eliminates susceptibility to ASLV(E) infection both in cultured cells and in the incidence and growth of avian sarcoma virus-induced sarcomas in chickens. The C125S substitution significantly reduces the binding affinity of the Tvb(S1) receptor for the subgroup B, D, and E ASLV envelope glycoproteins. These are the first results that demonstrate a possible role of the cysteine-rich domain 3 in the function of the Tvb receptors.