PIGO deficiency: palmoplantar keratoderma and novel mutations.

BACKGROUND: Several genetic defects have been identified in the glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchor synthesis, including mutations in PIGO encoding phosphatidylinositol glycan anchor biosynthesis class O protein. These defects constitute a subgroup of the congenital disorders of glycosylation (CDG). Seven patients from five families have been reported carrying variants in PIGO that cause an autosomal recessive syndrome characterised by dysmorphism, psychomotor disability, epilepsy and hyperphosphatasemia. METHODS: Whole exome sequencing was performed in a boy with dysmorphism, psychomotor disability, epilepsy, palmoplantar keratoderma, hyperphosphatasemia and platelet dysfunction without a clinical bleeding phenotype. RESULTS: Two novel variants in PIGO were detected. The missense variant encoding p. His871Pro was inherited from the boy's father while the frameshift variant encoding p. Arg604ProfsTer40 was maternally inherited. CONCLUSION: A boy with two novel PIGO variants is reported. The skin phenotype and platelet dysfunction in this patient have not been described in previously reported patients with PIGO deficiency but it is of course uncertain whether these are caused by this disorder. The literature on PIGO deficiency is reviewed.

Mechanism of O2 diffusion and reduction in FeFe hydrogenases.

FeFe hydrogenases are the most efficient H2-producing enzymes. However, inactivation by O2 remains an obstacle that prevents them being used in many biotechnological devices. Here, we combine electrochemistry, site-directed mutagenesis, molecular dynamics and quantum chemical calculations to uncover the molecular mechanism of O2 diffusion within the enzyme and its reactions at the active site. We propose that the partial reversibility of the reaction with O2 results from the four-electron reduction of O2 to water. The third electron/proton transfer step is the bottleneck for water production, competing with formation of a highly reactive OH radical and hydroxylated cysteine. The rapid delivery of electrons and protons to the active site is therefore crucial to prevent the accumulation of these aggressive species during prolonged O2 exposure. These findings should provide important clues for the design of hydrogenase mutants with increased resistance to oxidative damage.

Impact of the chemicals, essential for the purification process of strict Fe-hydrogenase, on the corrosion of mild steel.

The influence of additional chemical molecules, necessary for the purification process of [Fe]-hydrogenase from Clostridium acetobutylicum, was studied on the anaerobic corrosion of mild steel. At the end of the purification process, the pure [Fe-Fe]-hydrogenase was recovered in a Tris-HCl medium containing three other chemicals at low concentration: DTT, dithionite and desthiobiotin. Firstly, mild steel coupons were exposed in parallel to a 0.1 M pH7 Tris-HCl medium with or without pure hydrogenase. The results showed that hydrogenase and the additional molecules were in competition, and the electrochemical response could not be attributed solely to hydrogenase. Then, solutions with additional chemicals of different compositions were studied electrochemically. DTT polluted the electrochemical signal by increasing the Eoc by 35 mV 24 h after the injection of 300 µL of control solutions with DTT, whereas it drastically decreased the corrosion rate by increasing the charge transfer resistance (Rct 10 times the initial value). Thus, DTT was shown to have a strong antagonistic effect on corrosion and was removed from the purification process. An optimal composition of the medium was selected (0.5 mM dithionite, 7.5 mM desthiobiotin) that simultaneously allowed a high activity of hydrogenase and a lower impact on the electrochemical response for corrosion tests.

Metabolic engineering of Clostridium acetobutylicum ATCC 824 for the high-yield production of a biofuel composed of an isopropanol/butanol/ethanol mixture.

Clostridium acetobutylicum was metabolically engineered to produce a biofuel consisting of an isopropanol/butanol/ethanol mixture. For this purpose, different synthetic isopropanol operons were constructed and introduced on plasmids in a butyrate minus mutant strain (C. acetobutylicum ATCC 824 Δcac15ΔuppΔbuk). The best strain expressing the isopropanol operon from the thl promoter was selected from batch experiments at pH 5. By further optimizing the pH of the culture, a biofuel mixture with almost no by-products was produced at a titer, a yield and productivity never reached before, opening the opportunities to develop an industrial process for alternative biofuels with Clostridial species. Furthermore, by performing in vivo and in vitro flux analysis of the synthetic isopropanol pathway, this flux was identified to be limited by the [acetate](int) and the high Km of CoA-transferase for acetate. Decreasing the Km of this enzyme using a protein engineering approach would be a good target for improving isopropanol production and avoiding acetate accumulation in the culture medium.

Laser-induced primary and secondary hemostasis dynamics and mechanisms in relation to selective photothermolysis of port wine stains.

BACKGROUND: Superficial vascular anomalies such as port wine stains are commonly treated by selective photothermolysis (SP). The endovascular laser-tissue interactions underlying SP are governed by a photothermal response (thermocoagulation of blood) and a hemodynamic response (thrombosis). Currently it is not known whether the hemodynamic response encompasses both primary and secondary hemostasis, which platelet receptors are involved, and what the SP-induced thrombosis kinetics are in low-flow venules. OBJECTIVES: To (1) define the role and kinetics of primary and secondary hemostasis in laser-induced thrombus formation and (2) determine which key platelet surface receptors are involved in the hemodynamic response. METHODS: 532-nm laser-irradiated hamster dorsal skin fold venules were studied by intravital fluorescence microscopy following fluorescent labeling of platelets with 5(6)-carboxyfluorescein. Heparin and fluorescently labeled anti-glycoprotein Ib-α (GPIbα) and anti-P-selectin antibodies were administered to investigate the role of coagulation and platelet receptors, respectively. Lesional sizes were quantified by software. RESULTS: Laser irradiation consistently produced sub-occlusive thermal coagula. Thrombosis was triggered in all irradiated venules in a thermal coagulum-independent manner and peaked at 6.25min post-irradiation. Heparin decreased the maximum thrombus size and caused thrombosis to reach a maximum at 1.25min. Immunoblocking of GPIbα abated the extent of thrombosis, whereas immunoblocking of P-selectin had no effect. CONCLUSIONS: The hemodynamic response ensues the photothermal response in a thermal coagulum-independent manner and involves primary and secondary hemostasis. Primary hemostasis is mediated by constitutively expressed GPIbα but not by activation-dependent P-selectin.

Transcription profiling in human platelets reveals LRRFIP1 as a novel protein regulating platelet function.

Within the healthy population, there is substantial, heritable, and interindividual variability in the platelet response. We explored whether a proportion of this variability could be accounted for by interindividual variation in gene expression. Through a correlative analysis of genome-wide platelet RNA expression data from 37 subjects representing the normal range of platelet responsiveness within a cohort of 500 subjects, we identified 63 genes in which transcript levels correlated with variation in the platelet response to adenosine diphosphate and/or the collagen-mimetic peptide, cross-linked collagen-related peptide. Many of these encode proteins with no reported function in platelets. An association study of 6 of the 63 genes in 4235 cases and 6379 controls showed a putative association with myocardial infarction for COMMD7 (COMM domain-containing protein 7) and a major deviation from the null hypo thesis for LRRFIP1 [leucine-rich repeat (in FLII) interacting protein 1]. Morpholino-based silencing in Danio rerio identified a modest role for commd7 and a significant effect for lrrfip1 as positive regulators of thrombus formation. Proteomic analysis of human platelet LRRFIP1-interacting proteins indicated that LRRFIP1 functions as a component of the platelet cytoskeleton, where it interacts with the actin-remodeling proteins Flightless-1 and Drebrin. Taken together, these data reveal novel proteins regulating the platelet response.

Development of a high-throughput ELISA assay for platelet function testing using platelet-rich plasma or whole blood.

Platelets play an essential role in the development of cardiovascular diseases and are the target of several agents that can inhibit their function. Despite the existence of a wide array of techniques to study platelet function, an assay to evaluate several platelet signalling pathways in a high-throughput fashion, combined with minimal blood volume and handling is still needed. We have developed a sensitive assay in the form of a sandwich ELISA where monoclonal antibodies against P-selectin or alphaIIbbeta3 and GPIbalpha were used to capture and detect platelets, respectively, in the presence of five different agonists [ADP, TRAP (thrombin receptor agonist), U46619 (thromboxane A2 analogue), collagen-related-peptide, and arachidonic acid]. Binding of platelets to the antibodies increased dose-dependently with the concentration of either agonist, while binding of ADP-activated platelets was abrogated when inhibitors of platelet activation were concomitantly added. The test showed good sample reproducibility in 15 healthy donors with conserved platelet response to agonists throughout the assay. Healthy subjects could be identified as normal-, hypo- or hyper-responders for each agonist, which for most cases (73%) was confirmed upon retesting. Finally, we demonstrated that the platelet ELISA assay can not only be used in platelet-rich plasma but also in whole blood; it now awaits large scale studies to assess its full screening and diagnostic values.

Human platelets produced in nonobese diabetic/severe combined immunodeficient (NOD/SCID) mice upon transplantation of human cord blood CD34(+) cells are functionally active in an ex vivo flow model of thrombosis.

Xenotransplantation systems have been used with increasing success to better understand human hematopoiesis and thrombopoiesis. In this study, we demonstrate that production of human platelets in nonobese diabetic/severe combined immunodeficient mice after transplantation of unexpanded cord-blood CD34(+) cells was detected within 10 days after transplantation, with the number of circulating human platelets peaking at 2 weeks (up to 87 x 10(3)/microL). This rapid human platelet production was followed by a second wave of platelet formation 5 weeks after transplantation, with a population of 5% still detected after 8 weeks, attesting for long-term engraftment. Platelets issued from human hematopoietic stem cell progenitors are functional, as assessed by increased CD62P expression and PAC1 binding in response to collagen-related peptide and thrombin receptor-activating peptide activation and their ability to incorporate into thrombi formed on a collagen-coated surface in an ex vivo flow model of thrombosis. This interaction was abrogated by addition of inhibitory monoclonal antibodies against human glycoprotein Ibalpha (GPIbalpha) and GPIIb/IIIa. Thus, our mouse model with production of human platelets may be further explored to study the function of genetically modified platelets, but also to investigate the effect of stimulators or inhibitors of human thrombopoiesis in vivo.

Cytotoxic activity of Bacillus anthracis protective antigen observed in a macrophage cell line overexpressing ANTXR1.

Anthrax toxin protective antigen (PA) binds cell surface receptors (e.g. ANTXR1,2), forms heptameric pores, and translocates lethal factor (LF) or oedema factor (OF) into the cytoplasm of mammalian cells. In the current study, we sought to determine how receptor levels influence these events, by examining PA heptamer stability and related processes in macrophages that overexpress ANTXR1 (RAW 264.7ANTXR1). In these experiments, PA-oligomers demonstrated an extended half-life in RAW 264.7ANTXR1 macrophages, with SDS-resistant heptamers detected up to 10 h following treatment, while levels of PA-oligomers declined within 3 h in control cells. RAW 264.7ANTXR1 macrophages were also more sensitive to lethal toxin, a combination of PA and LF. Surprisingly, we found that PA alone was cytotoxic to RAW 264.7ANTXR1 cells. Further analysis found that PA cytotoxicity required direct interaction with ANTXR1, oligomerization, channel formation, endosomal acidification, and was independent of the ANTXR1 cytoplasmic tail. PA intoxication of RAW 264.7ANTXR1 macrophages resulted in caspase-3 activation, with corresponding DNA fragmentation and proteolytic cleavage of poly-ADP-ribose polymerase, as well as activation of Bid, suggesting cell death occurred via apoptosis. Overall, results from the current study suggest that receptor levels dictate the extent of PA oligomer stability, and shifts in this normal process can lead to cell death via apoptosis in the absence of toxin catalytic subunits.

Bacillus anthracis oedema toxin as a cause of tissue necrosis and cell type-specific cytotoxicity.

Oedema factor (OF) and protective antigen (PA) are secreted by Bacillus anthracis, and their binary combination yields oedema toxin (OT). Following PA-mediated delivery to the cytosol, OF functions as an adenylate cyclase generating high levels of cAMP. To assess OT as a possible cause of tissue damage and cell death, a novel approach was developed, which utilized a developing zebrafish embryo model to study toxin activity. Zebrafish embryos incubated with OT exhibited marked necrosis of the liver, cranium and gastrointestinal tract, as well as reduced swim bladder inflation. The OT-treated embryos survived after all stages of development but succumbed to the toxin within 7 days. Additional analysis of specific cell lines, including macrophage and non-macrophage, showed OT-induced cell death is cell type-specific. There was no discernible correlation between levels of OF-generated cAMP and cell death. Depending on the type of cell analysed, cell death could be detected in low levels of cAMP, and, conversely, cell survival was observed in one cell line in which high levels of cAMP were found following treatment with OT. Collectively, these data suggest OT is cytotoxic in a cell-dependent manner and may contribute to disease through direct cell killing leading to tissue necrosis.

Toxin-induced resistance in Bacillus anthracis lethal toxin-treated macrophages.

In the current study, we show that macrophages adaptively resist anthrax lethal toxin (LT) through a toxin-activated process termed toxin-induced resistance (TIR). TIR was triggered by pretreatment of RAW 264.7 or J774A.1 macrophages with a low dose of LT for at least 6 h, which resulted in resistance to high doses of LT for 96 h. Activation of TIR required functional toxin, because LT subunits, mutants, and heat-inactivated toxin were unable to trigger resistance. TIR macrophages were not altered in toxin receptor levels or cell cycle profiles. Treatment of TIR macrophages with high doses of LT resulted in a sustained decline in full-length mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase 2, a known target of lethal factor, and a marked reduction in diphosphorylated extracellular response kinases 1,2 for 24 h. However, despite the sustained loss of full-length mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase 2, by 48 h, TIR macrophages regained diphosphorylated extracellular response kinases 1,2, suggesting an adaptation led to recovery of this signaling pathway. TIR macrophages were also able to maintain normal levels of ubiquitinylated proteins, whereas sensitive cells show a rapid reduction in ubiquitin-modified proteins before cell death, indicating a possible alteration in proteasome activity contributed to resistance. These results provide a paradigm for toxin-cell interactions and suggest macrophages are capable of adapting to and tolerating toxic doses of LT.

Decreased glycogen synthase kinase 3-beta levels and related physiological changes in Bacillus anthracis lethal toxin-treated macrophages.

The lethal factor (LF) component of Bacillus anthracis lethal toxin (LeTx) cleaves mitogen activated protein kinase kinases (MAPKKs) in a variety of different cell types, yet only macrophages are rapidly killed by this toxin. The reason for this selective killing is unclear, but suggests other factors may also be involved in LeTx intoxication. In the current study, DNA membrane arrays were used to identify broad changes in macrophage physiology after treatment with LeTx. Expression of genes regulated by MAPKK activity did not change significantly, yet a series of genes under glycogen synthase kinase-3-beta (GSK-3beta) regulation changed expression following LeTx treatment. Correlating with these transcriptional changes GSK-3beta was found to be below detectable levels in toxin-treated cells and an inhibitor of GSK-3beta, LiCl, sensitized resistant IC-21 macrophages to LeTx. In addition, zebrafish embryos treated with LeTx showed signs of delayed pigmentation and cardiac hypertrophy; both processes are subject to regulation by GSK-3beta. A putative compensatory response to loss of GSK-3beta was indicated by differential expression of three motor proteins following toxin treatment and Kif1C, a motor protein involved in sensitivity to LeTx, increased expression in toxin-sensitive cells yet decreased in resistant cells following toxin treatment. Differential expression of microtubule-associating proteins and a decrease in the level of cellular tubulin were detected in LeTx-treated cells, both of which can result from loss of GSK-3beta activity. These data provide new information on LeTx's overall influence on macrophage physiology and suggest loss of GSK-3beta contributes to cytotoxicity.