CXCR4 and CXCR7 Mediate TFF3-Induced Cell Migration Independently From the ERK1/2 Signaling Pathway.

PURPOSE: Trefoil factor family (TFF) peptides, and in particular TFF3, are characteristic secretory products of mucous epithelia that promote antiapoptosis, epithelial migration, restitution, and wound healing. For a long time, a receptor for TFF3 had not yet been identified. However, the chemokine receptor CXCR4 has been described as a low affinity receptor for TFF2. Additionally, CXCR7, which is able to heterodimerize with CXCR4, has also been discussed as a potential TFF2 receptor. Since there are distinct structural similarities between the three known TFF peptides, this study evaluated whether CXCR4 and CXCR7 may also act as putative TFF3 receptors. METHODS: We evaluated the expression of both CXCR4 and CXCR7 in samples of human ocular surface tissues and cell lines, using RT-PCR, immunohistochemistry, and Western blot analysis. Furthermore, we studied possible binding interactions between TFF3 and the receptor proteins in an x-ray structure-based modeling system. Functional studies of TFF3-CXCR4/CXCR7 interaction were accomplished by cell culture-based migration assays, flow cytometry, and evaluation of activation of the mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase signaling cascade. RESULTS: We detected both receptors at mRNA and protein level in all analyzed ocular surface tissues, and in lesser amount in ocular surface cell lines. X-ray structure-based modeling revealed CXCR4 and CXCR7 dimers as possible binding partners to TFF3. Cell culture-based assays revealed enhanced cell migration under TFF3 stimulation in a conjunctival epithelial cell line, which was completely suppressed by blocking CXCR4 and/or CXCR7. Flow cytometry showed increased proliferation rates after TFF3 treatment, while blocking both receptors had no effect on this increase. Trefoil factor family 3 also activated the MAP kinase signaling cascade independently from receptor activity. CONCLUSIONS: Dimers CXCR4 and CXCR7 are involved in TFF3-dependent activation of cell migration, but not cell proliferation. The ERK1/2 pathway is activated in the process, but not influenced by CXCR4 or CXCR7. These results implicate a dependence of TFF3 activity as to cell migration on the chemokine receptors CXCR4 and CXCR7 at the ocular surface.

Trefoil factor family peptide 3 (TFF3) is upregulated under experimental conditions similar to dry eye disease and supports corneal wound healing effects in vitro.

PURPOSE: To elucidate the role of trefoil family peptide (TFF) 3 at the ocular surface under conditions similar to dry eye disease (DED) and in tears of patients suffering from DED. METHODS: Trefoil family peptide 3 levels in tear samples from non-Sjögren's DED patients with moderate dry eye were analyzed by ELISA and compared with tears from healthy volunteers. A human corneal epithelial (HCE) cell line was treated with proinflammatory cytokines IL-1ß and TNF-α, hyperosmolar medium, or scratching for up to 24 hours. Trefoil family peptide 3 gene expression and protein biosynthesis were analyzed by RT-PCR, immunofluorescence, and ELISA. Migration and proliferation of HCE cells under recombinant (r) human (h) trefoil factor family peptide 3 (TFF3) stimulation were investigated by scratching and bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) proliferation assays. RESULTS: Tears of patients suffering from DED contained significantly higher TFF3 levels than tears from healthy volunteers. Stimulation of HCE cells with proinflammatory cytokines, culture under hyperosmolar conditions, or scratching resulted, with the exception of hyperosmolar conditions, in an increase in TFF3 expression and elevated secretion level of TFF3. Cell proliferation decreased and cell migration increased after 24-hours stimulation with rhTFF3. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that inflammatory factors or ocular surface damage as they occur in DED, lead to an increase of TFF3 tear film concentration, whereas hyperosmolarity does not. Our data underline a potential role for TFF3 as a candidate therapeutic for the ocular surface damage observed in DED.

Insulin-like factor 3 promotes wound healing at the ocular surface.

Tear fluid is known to contain many different hormones with relevance for ocular surface homeostasis. We studied the presence and functional role of insulin-like factor 3 (INSL3) and its cognate receptor RXFP2 (relaxin/insulin-like family peptide receptor 2) at the ocular surface and in tears. Expression of human INSL3 and RXFP2 was determined in tissues of the ocular surface and lacrimal apparatus; in human corneal (HCE), conjunctival (HCjE), and sebaceous (SC) epithelial cell lines; and in human tears by RT-PCR and ELISA. We investigated effects of human recombinant INSL3 (hrINSL3) on cell proliferation and cell migration and the influence of hrINSL3 on the expression of MMP2, -9, and -13 and TIMP1 and -2 was quantified by real-time PCR and ELISA in HCE, HCjE, and SC cells. We used a C57BL/6 mouse corneal defect model to elucidate the effect of topical application of hrINSL3 on corneal wound healing. INSL3 and RXFP2 transcripts and INSL3 protein were detected in all tissues and cell lines investigated. Significantly higher concentrations of INSL3 were detected in tears from male vs. female volunteers. Stimulation of HCE, HCjE, and SC with hrINSL3 significantly increased cell proliferation in HCjE and SC and migration of HCjE. Treatment with hrINSL3 for 24 hours regulated MMP2, TIMP1, and TIMP2 expression. The local application of hrINSL3 onto denuded corneal surface resulted in significantly accelerated corneal wound healing in mice. These findings suggest a novel and gender-specific role for INSL3 and cognate receptor RXFP2 signaling in ocular surface homeostasis and determined a novel role for hrINSL3 in corneal wound healing.

Involvement of corneal epithelial cells in the Th17 response in an in vitro bacterial inflammation model.

PURPOSE: Staphylococcus aureus (SA) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (PA) are frequent causes of bacterial keratitis, an inflammatory process that can lead to vision loss. We used a human corneal epithelial (HCE) cell line to study the Th17 inflammatory pathway, including interleukin (IL-) 6, IL-17, and associated receptors, in response to stimulation by SA and PA culture supernatants. METHODS: Cells of the HCE cell line were exposed to either SA or PA supernatants in dilutions of 1:100 or 1:50, or to human recombinant IL-17A (20 ng/ml). Cell culture supernatants were collected at 6, 24, and 72 h, and protein and RNA were isolated. Expression of cytokine (IL-6, IL-17A), receptor (sIL-6R, IL-17RA), and mediator (soluble glycoprotein [sgp] 130, MIP3α) proteins and mRNAs were determined with enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, immunohistochemistry, western blotting, and real-time, reverse-transcription quantitative PCR. In addition, IL-17RA was localized by transmission electron microscopy after immunogold labeling. RESULTS: Basal secretion of IL-6 and IL-17A by HCE cells occurred in a time-dependent manner. Expression of IL-6 was significantly enhanced by SA stimulation, but not by PA stimulation. IL-6 mRNA expression was higher in the control and SA-stimulated cells at 6 and 24 h, but not at 72 h. In the PA-stimulated cells, mRNA levels were significantly lower than the controls at 6 and 24 h. Expression of sIL-6R was not altered by SA or PA supernatants, but sgp130 expression was greater than controls at 6 h, less than controls at 24 h, and the same as controls at 72 h. HCE cells secreted IL-17A in a time-dependent manner that was not altered by stimulation; however, the IL-17A mRNA levels were lower than those of the controls at 6 h. With immunohistochemistry, IL-17RA was localized in perinuclear vesicles and in the cytosol and membranes of HCE cells. IL-17RA was also present in the epithelial cells from human ocular surface tissues. As quantified with western blotting, expression of IL-17RA was unchanged in HCE cells stimulated by SA or PA supernatants. CONCLUSIONS: HCE cells react to bacterial inflammation by enhancing the secretion of IL-6 and by regulating the proinflammatory response with differential secretion of sgp130. Under normal conditions, HCE cells and ocular surface tissues express IL-17RA. Additionally, HCE cells express IL-17RA after bacterial stimulation. All of these molecules are involved in the Th17 differentiation pathway, suggesting that corneal epithelial cells may act as indirect participants in the Th17 signaling pathway.

Fresh and cryopreserved amniotic membrane secrete the trefoil factor family peptide 3 that is well known to promote wound healing.

Amniotic membrane (AM) is often used for the treatment of ocular surface ulcerations and other corneal defects. Trefoil factor family (TFF) peptide 3 is produced by conjunctival goblet cells, participates in tear film physiology and has also been shown to be involved in ocular surface restitution after corneal injury. In the present study, we questioned whether AM also might be a source of TFF3 and if yes whether the secretion rate of TFF3 is changed by proinflammatory cytokines or by cryoconservation of AM. By means of RT-PCR, the mRNA expression of all three known TFF peptides could be detected in AM. Immunohistochemistry on paraffin-embedded sections localized TFF3 protein and also TFF2 in AM cells and Western blot analysis revealed TFF3 protein in AM. Stimulation experiments with proinflammatory cytokines and subsequent TFF3 ELISA measurements revealed that the secretion rate of fresh or cryoconserved AM was not significantly changed. The results indicate that TFF peptides are produced by AM. TFF3 may contribute to ocular surface wound healing after AM transplantation, but its production by AM is not further inducible by proinflammatory stimuli. Cryopreservation has no effect on the secretion rate of TFF3 supporting the use of cryopreserved AM for transplantation.

Long-term clinical and immunological effects of p53-SLP® vaccine in patients with ovarian cancer.

Vaccine-induced p53-specific immune responses were previously reported to be associated with improved response to secondary chemotherapy in patients with small cell lung cancer. We investigated long-term clinical and immunological effects of the p53-synthetic long peptide (p53-SLP®) vaccine in patients with recurrent ovarian cancer. Twenty patients were immunized with the p53-SLP® vaccine between July 2006 and August 2007. Follow-up information on patients was obtained. Clinical responses to secondary chemotherapy after p53-SLP® immunizations were determined by computerized tomography and/or tumor marker levels (CA125). Disease-specific survival was compared to a matched historical control group. Immune responses were analyzed by flow cytometry, proliferation assay, interferon gamma (IFN-γ) ELISPOT and/or cytokine bead array. Lymphocytes cultured from skin biopsy were analyzed by flow cytometry and proliferation assay. Of 20 patients treated with the p53-SLP® vaccine, 17 were subsequently treated with chemotherapy. Eight of these patients volunteered another blood sample. No differences in clinical response rates to secondary chemotherapy or disease-specific survival were observed between immunized patients and historical controls (p = 0.925, resp. p = 0.601). p53-specific proliferative responses were observed in 5/8 patients and IFN-γ production in 2/7 patients. Lymphocytes cultured from a prior injection site showing inflammation during chemotherapy did not recognize p53-SLP®. Thus, treatment with the p53-SLP® vaccine does not affect responses to secondary chemotherapy or survival, although p53-specific T-cells do survive chemotherapy.

Tumor-infiltrating cytotoxic T lymphocytes as independent prognostic factor in epithelial ovarian cancer with wilms tumor protein 1 overexpression.

Immune response characterization at the primary tumor site enables the design of therapeutic vaccination strategies with higher efficacy in epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC). In this study, we related Wilms tumor protein 1 (WT1) overexpression, a well-established immunotherapeutic target, to clinicopathological characteristics, immunological parameters, and survival in primary EOC. WT1 overexpression was evaluated in primary EOC tissue of 270 patients by immunohistochemistry on tissue microarrays (TMAs). Clinicopathological characteristics, follow-up, and data on infiltration of CD8⁺ cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs), FoxP3⁺ regulatory T lymphocytes (Tregs), major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I, and II molecule expression, were derived from a previously published dataset. WT1 overexpression was defined as positive immunostaining for WT1. WT1 overexpression, present in 56.3% of EOC, was associated with infiltration of Tregs [odds ratio (OR), 2.7; 95% confidence interval (95% CI), 1.6-4.7; P<0.001] and up-regulation of MHC class II (OR, 2.2; 95% CI, 1.2-4.1; P=0.014). Advanced stage (OR, 4.0; 95% CI, 1.9-8.6; P<0.001) and serous histology (OR, 6.7; 95% CI, 3.2-13.6; P<0.001) were independent predictors of WT1 overexpressing EOC. High number of CTL was an independent prognostic factor for progression-free survival (hazard ratio, 0.5; 95% CI, 0.3-0.8; P=0.006) in WT1 overexpressing EOC. As WT1 overexpressing EOC is associated with CTL and Treg infiltration next to MHC class II up-regulation, future clinical trials should evaluate the combination of therapeutic WT1 vaccines with strategies depleting Tregs and/or up-regulating MHC class I, in an attempt to enhance clinical efficacy in EOC patients.

Trefoil factor 3 is induced during degenerative and inflammatory joint disease, activates matrix metalloproteinases, and enhances apoptosis of articular cartilage chondrocytes.

OBJECTIVE: Trefoil factor 3 (TFF3, also known as intestinal trefoil factor) is a member of a family of protease-resistant peptides containing a highly conserved motif with 6 cysteine residues. Recent studies have shown that TFF3 is expressed in injured cornea, where it plays a role in corneal wound healing, but not in healthy cornea. Since cartilage and cornea have similar matrix properties, we undertook the present study to investigate whether TFF3 could induce anabolic functions in diseased articular cartilage. METHODS: We used reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction, Western blot analysis, and immunohistochemistry to measure the expression of TFF3 in healthy articular cartilage, osteoarthritis (OA)-affected articular cartilage, and septic arthritis-affected articular cartilage and to assess the effects of cytokines, bacterial products, and bacterial supernatants on TFF3 production. The effects of TFF3 on matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) production were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, and effects on chondrocyte apoptosis were studied by caspase assay and annexin V assay. RESULTS: Trefoil factors were not expressed in healthy human articular cartilage, but expression of TFF3 was highly up-regulated in the cartilage of patients with OA. These findings were confirmed in animal models of OA and septic arthritis, as well as in tumor necrosis factor alpha- and interleukin-1beta-treated primary human articular chondrocytes, revealing induction of Tff3/TFF3 under inflammatory conditions. Application of the recombinant TFF3 protein to cultured chondrocytes resulted in increased production of cartilage-degrading MMPs and increased chondrocyte apoptosis. CONCLUSION: In this study using articular cartilage as a model, we demonstrated that TFF3 supports catabolic functions in diseased articular cartilage. These findings widen our knowledge of the functional spectrum of TFF peptides and demonstrate that TFF3 is a multifunctional trefoil factor with the ability to link inflammation with tissue remodeling processes in articular cartilage. Moreover, our data suggest that TFF3 is a factor in the pathogenesis of OA and septic arthritis.

Regulation of MUC16 by inflammatory mediators in ocular surface epithelial cell lines.

The aim of the present study was to evaluate the regulation of membrane-anchored mucin MUC16 by proinflammatory cytokines and bacterial components at the ocular surface. Expression and distribution of MUC16 in conjunctival (HCjE) and corneal (HCE) epithelial cell lines was monitored by RT-PCR and immunohistochemistry. To determine the regulation of MUC16, cultured HCjEs and HCEs were stimulated with different cytokines, bacterial components and bacterial supernatants, and analyzed by real-time PCR, immunodot blot and immunohistochemistry. The results indicate that MUC16 is differentially regulated between HCjEs and HCEs after challenge with inflammatory mediators and suggest shedding of MUC16 from the ocular surface epithelia into the tear film. This seems to be precisely regulated. MUC16 shedding can be differentially increased and decreased, suggesting a protective function of membrane-anchored MUC16 and supporting the hypothesis that dysregulation of membrane-anchored MUC16 at the ocular surface may be involved in dry eye pathology.