Extra Virgin Olive Oil from Stoned Olives with Oxygen Supply during Processing: Impact on Volatile and Phenolic Fraction and Sensory Characteristics.

The improvement of the extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) extraction process involves the proper management of endogenous enzymes of the olive fruit and all the technological conditions that can affect their activities. Coratina and Peranzana cultivars were processed to assess the influence of different technologies for fruit breaking (crushing and stoning) with and without controlled oxygen addition during this critical phase. The study of volatile compounds revealed that the enzymes that are responsible for their genesis during the technological process were significantly affected by oxygen addition in both the systems of fruit crushing. The results from the stoning technology proved that the quality improvement was a consequence of the prevention of the seed breaking and the oxidation catalyzed by the olive stone enzymes. In Peranzana EVOOs, it was possible to increase the aldehyde concentration up to 97% using stoning technology with a 0.2 L/min oxygen addition compared with traditional crushing. At the same time, non-significant reductions in phenolic compounds were detected when comparing crushing and stoning with and without the addition of oxygen, and similar trends were observed for the two studied cultivars. The sensory analyses confirmed the differences in phenolic and volatile composition detected in the EVOO samples.

Baby Foods: 9 Out of 62 Exceed the Reference Limits for Acrylamide.

Acrylamide (AA) is a contaminant resulting from the Maillard reaction and classified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) as a probable carcinogen in Group 2A, with proven neurotoxic effects on humans. European Union (EU) Regulation No. 2017/2158 is currently in force, which establishes measures meant to reduce AA levels in food and sets reference values, but not legal limits, equal to 40 and 150 µg/kg AA in processed cereal-based foods intended for infants and young children and in biscuits and rusks, respectively. For this reason, sixty-two baby foods were analyzed using ultra-high performance liquid chromatography with diode array detector and quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UHPLC-DAD-Q-TOF/MS) to check whether industries were complying with these values, even though AA control is not legally mandatory. In total, 14.5% of the samples exceeded the reference values; these were homogenized chicken products (211.84 ± 16.53, 154.32 ± 12.71, 194.88 ± 7.40 µg/kg), three biscuits (276.36 ± 0.03, 242.06 ± 0.78, 234.78 ± 4.53 µg/kg), a wheat semolina (46.07 ± 0.23 µg/kg), a homogenized product with plaice and potatoes (45.52 ± 0.28 µg/kg), and a children's snack with milk and cocoa (40.95 ± 0.32 µg/kg). Subsequently, the daily intake of AA was estimated, considering the worst-case scenario, as provided by the consumption of homogenized chicken products and biscuits. The results are associated with margins of exposure (MOEs) that are not concerning for neurotoxic effects but are alarming for the probable carcinogenic effects of AA.

Growth, yield and oil quality of adult pedestrian olive orchards grown at four different planting systems.

This study evaluated growth, yield and olive oil quality of mature pedestrian olive orchards. Trees of three Sicilian cultivars Calatina, Nocellara del Belice and Abunara were planted at four combinations of planting densities and training forms. Trees at 2 × 5 m were trained to central leader (CLx2), those at 3 × 5 m to free palmette (FPx3), those at 4 x 5 to globe vase (GVx4), and those at 5 x 5 to poly-conic vase (PVx5). 'Calatina' had the smallest trees in terms of trunk size in all growing systems, while canopy size of trees at higher densities was similar for all three cultivars. 'Calatina' was also the most growth efficient (m3 of canopy per cm2 of TCSA) and produced the least amount of pruning wood in the hedgerow systems (CLx2 and FPx3). Fruit yield per tree tended to be higher in more vigorous cultivars (Abunara and Nocellara) grown to 3D systems (GVx4 and PVx5), while 'Calatina' was the most yield efficient (kg of fruit per cm2 of TCSA) especially in the hedgerow growing systems. Fruit and oil yield per ha and average production value tended to be highest in CLx2 trees and lowest in GVx4 trees, with 'Calatina' showing the sharpest changes and 'Nocellara' the smallest changes among growing systems. According to the Jaen index, CLx2 tended to induce earlier fruit maturation, followed by PVx5, GVx4, and FPx3. The growing system did not affect oil fatty acid composition, while 'Calatina' had the highest amount of mono-unsaturated fatty acids and the lowest amount of saturated fatty acids. 'Abunara' oils exhibited the highest amount of total phenols in CLx2, while 'Calatina' and 'Nocellara' oils exhibited the highest amount in FPx3 and PVx5. Both, trans-2-hexenal ("cut grass" sensory note) and hexenyl acetate ("floral" sensory note) tended to be lowest in oils from trees grown at CLx2 and highest in those from trees grown at GVx4, showing a somewhat inverse relationship with fruit ripening degree. The outcome of the present study on mature pedestrian orchards shows that proper combinations of cultivars, planting densities, and training forms (canopy shape) may result in efficient intensive systems for growing olive in areas where super-high density systems cannot be profitable due to agronomic and environmental limitations (water shortage, steep sloping sites, small farm size, etc.). Pedestrian growing systems can also be used to exploit olive biodiversity by allowing the use of available local genotypes. For this reason, they may represent an effective and sustainable solution against unexpected climate changes and associated emerging diseases.

The Anti-Neuroinflammatory Effect of Extra-Virgin Olive Oil in the Triple Transgenic Mouse Model of Alzheimer's Disease.

Background: Chronic intake of extra virgin olive oil is beneficial for brain health and protects from age-related cognitive decline and dementia, whose most common clinical manifestation is Alzheimer's disease. Besides the classical pathologic deposits of amyloid beta peptides and phosphorylated tau proteins, another frequent feature of the Alzheimer's brain is neuroinflammation. Objective: In the current study, we assessed the effect that extra virgin olive oil has on neuroinflammation when administered to a mouse model of the disease. Methods: Triple transgenic mice were randomized to receive a diet enriched with extra virgin olive oil or regular diet for 8 weeks. At the end of this treatment period the expression level of several inflammatory biomarkers was assessed in the central nervous system. Results: Among the 79 biomarkers measured, compared with the control group, mice receiving the extra virgin olive oil had a significant reduction in MIP-2, IL-17E, IL-23, and IL-12p70, but an increase in IL-5. To validate these results, specific ELISA kits were used for each of them. Confirmatory results were obtained for MIP-2, IL-17E, IL-23, and IL-12-p70. No significant differences between the two groups were observed for IL-5. Conclusions: Our results demonstrate that chronic administration of extra virgin olive oil has a potent anti-neuroinflammatory action in a model of Alzheimer's disease. They provide additional pre-clinical support and novel mechanistic insights for the beneficial effect that this dietary intervention has on brain health and dementia.

Potential of the Oxidized Form of the Oleuropein Aglycon to Monitor the Oil Quality Evolution of Commercial Extra-Virgin Olive Oils.

The quality of commercially available extra-virgin olive oils (VOOs) of different chemical compositions was evaluated as a function of storage (12 months), simulating market storage conditions, to find reliable and early markers of the virgin olive oil (VOOs) quality status in the market. By applying a D-optimal design using the Most Descriptive Compound (MDC) algorithm, 20 virgin olive oils were selected. The initial concentrations of oleic acid, hydrophilic phenols, and α-tocopherol in the 20 VOOs ranged from 58.2 to 80.5%, 186.7 to 1003.2 mg/kg, and 170.7-300.6 mg/kg, respectively. K270, ∆K, (E, E)-2.4-decadienal and (E)-2-decenal, and the oxidative form of the oleuropein aglycon (3,4-DHPEA-EA-OX) reflected the VOO quality status well, with 3,4-DHPEA-EA-OX being the most relevant and quick index for simple monitoring of the "extra-virgin" commercial shelf-life category. Its HPLC-DAD evaluation is easy because of the different wavelength absorbances of the oxidized and non-oxidized form (3,4-DHPEA-EA), respectively, at 347 and 278 nm.

Method for the analysis of volatile compounds in virgin olive oil by SPME-GC-MS or SPME-GC-FID.

During the course of the EU H2020 OLEUM project, a harmonized method was developed to quantify volatile markers of the aroma of virgin olive oil with the aim to support the work of sensory panel test to assess the quality grade. A peer validation of this method has been carried out, with good results in terms of analytical quality parameters. The method allows the quantification of volatile compounds by SPME-GC with two possible detectors, flame ionization detector and mass spectrometry, depending on the technical facilities of the labs applying this method. The method was optimized for the quantification of 18 volatile compounds that were selected as being markers responsible for positive attributes (e.g. fruity) and sensory defects (e.g. rancid and winey-vinegary). The quantification is carried out with calibration curves corrected by the internal standards. Additionally, a protocol is provided to prepare the calibration samples. This procedure enhances reproducibility between labs since one of the main sources of errors is the application of different procedures in calibration.

Experimental Investigation of a New Modular Crusher Machine Developed for Olive Oil Extraction Plants.

The crushing system is crucial in the virgin olive oil (VOO) mechanical extraction process. The use of different crusher machines can highly influence the quality of the final product, mainly due to the phenolic and volatile content responsible for VOO sensory and health properties. An experimental investigation was conducted to evaluate the effect of the geometric features of a new model of crusher machine for olives. The crusher machine consists of interchangeable rotors: a rotor with hammers and a rotor with knives. The evaluation was carried out with the same fixed grid in stainless steel with 6 mm diameter circular holes. An evaluation was carried out on the impact of the crusher tools on the pit particle size and on the distribution of energy and temperature. The performance of the plant was also assessed in terms of process efficiency and olive oil quality. The results showed that the specific energy released by the tool per unit of product, calculated through both energy conservation and comminution theory, is about 25-27% higher in the case of hammers. Since the impact energy is mainly dissipated in the product as heat, the temperature reached during milling operations with the hammer crusher was also higher by the same percentage with respect to the knife crusher. This has important consequences on the quality of the product: the new knife rotor used in the crushing phase produced an improvement in VOO quality, relating mainly to sensory attributes and the health-enhancing properties of the final product. The ability of the crusher to break cell walls and vacuoles, thus releasing the oil contained therein, is comparable for the two different rotors.

Investigation on the Effects of a Pulsed Electric Field (PEF) Continuous System Implemented in an Industrial Olive Oil Plant.

The aim of this study was to investigate how the treatment of olive paste of the Picholine variety with pulsed electric fields (PEF) under real operating conditions in a large-scale olive oil extraction plant affects the extractability, chemical composition and sensory profile of the oils. The application of pulsed electric fields (PEF) as a non-thermal food processing technology is interesting for many food extraction processes. The results of this study show that pulsed electric fields can be used as a pretreatment before oil separation to increase the extractability of the process and improve the content of functional components. The application of pulsed electric field (PEF) treatment (2.4 kV/cm, 4 kJ/kg, 6 µs pulse width) to olive paste through a continuous system significantly increased the extractability and total concentration of phenols (especially oleuropein derivatives) compared to the control. In addition, the volatile compounds, α-tocopherol, the fatty acid profile and the main legal quality parameters of extra virgin olive oil (EVOO), including free acidity, peroxide values, extinction indices and sensory analysis, were evaluated. The pulsed electric fields (PEF) treatment did not modify these EVOO quality parameters, neither the α-tocopherol content nor the volatile profile. The sensory properties of EVOO were not affected as well as the PEF treatment showed a similar intensity of fruity and pungent attributes without any off-flavor according to the European Union legal standards. An increase in the bitter taste attribute was observed in the PEF oils. Consequently, this study demonstrates that pulsed electric fields (PEF) processing could be implemented in olive oil processing as pretreatment for improving the efficiency of the process.

Effect of the Application of a Green Preservative Strategy on Minced Meat Products: Antimicrobial Efficacy of Olive Mill Wastewater Polyphenolic Extract in Improving Beef Burger Shelf-Life.

The mincing process of raw meat favors microbial spoilage as well as chemical and enzymatic oxidation processes. In order to limit this degradative process, preservatives are routinely added to minced meat products. The role of olive mill wastewater polyphenolic extract as a replacement for synthetic preservatives in beef burger was assessed. The antioxidant capacity of the extract experimentally added to beef burger was evaluated using the oxygen radical absorbance capacity method (ORACFL) to assess the shelf-life, while the lipid oxidation was measured by thiobarbituric reactive substance (TBAR) determination. The antimicrobial activity was assayed by means of classical methods and predictive microbiology. The experimental addition of polyphenolic extract led to 62% lower lipid oxidation and 58% higher antioxidant capacity; it also successfully modulated spoilage microbial populations with an average growth reduction of 15% on day 7. Results indicate that olive mill wastewater polyphenolic extracts could be added to raw ground beef meat to act as natural antioxidants and to modulate microbial growth.

Molecular and metabolic effects of extra-virgin olive oil on the cardiovascular gene signature in rodents.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Overweight and obesity are major risk factors for degenerative diseases, including cardiometabolic disorders and cancer. Research on fat and fatty acids' type is attracting less attention than that on carbohydrates. High adherence to a Mediterranean diet is associated with a better prognosis. One characteristic of the Mediterranean diet is extra-virgin olive oil (EVOO) as the foremost source of dietary fat. EVOO is different from other vegetable oils because it contains peculiar "minor" components, mainly phenolic in nature. Even though olive oil is highly caloric, unrestricted use of olive oil in the PREDIMED trial did not result in weight gain. We sought to study the effects of EVOO in an appropriate mouse model of increased body weight. Furthermore, we explored the biochemical and metabolomic responses to EVOO consumption. METHODS AND RESULTS: C57BL/6N male mice were weight-matched and fed ad libitum with the following diets, for 16 weeks: 1) saturated fatty acid diet (SFA) or 2) extra-virgin olive oil diet (EVOO), a custom-prepared diet, isocaloric compared to SFA, in which 82% of fat was replaced by high (poly)phenol EVOO. We evaluated glucose homeostasis, serum biochemistry and plasma metabolomics, in addition to cardiac and hepatic gene profile, and mitochondrial respiration rate. CONCLUSION: Replacing saturated fatty acids (e.g. lard) with EVOO translates into moderate yet beneficial cardiometabolic and hepatic effects. Future research will further clarify the mechanisms of action of EVOO (poly)phenols and their role in a balanced diet.

Geographical authentication of virgin olive oil by GC-MS sesquiterpene hydrocarbon fingerprint: Verifying EU and single country label-declaration.

According to the last report from the European Union (EU) Food Fraud Network, olive oil tops the list of the most notified products. Current EU regulation states geographical origin as mandatory for virgin olive oils, even though an official analytical method is still lacking. Verifying the compliance of label-declared EU oils should be addressed with the highest priority level. Hence, the present work tackles this issue by developing a classification model (PLS-DA) based on the sesquiterpene hydrocarbon fingerprint of 400 samples obtained by HS-SPME-GC-MS to discriminate between EU and non-EU olive oils, obtaining an 89.6% of correct classification for the external validation (three iterations), with a sensitivity of 0.81 and a specificity of 0.95. Subsequently, multi-class discrimination models for EU and non-EU countries were developed and externally validated (with three different validation sets) with successful results (average of 92.2% of correct classification for EU and 96.0% for non-EU countries).

Effects of In Vitro Digestion on the Antioxidant Activity of Three Phenolic Extracts from Olive Mill Wastewaters.

The aim of this study was to assess the impact of in vitro digestion on the antioxidant activity of three extracts rich in phenols (two purified organic extracts (A20, A21) and one powdered extract stabilized with maltodextrins (SP)) obtained from olive mill wastewaters (OMWW). The content and composition of phenols and antioxidant activity was determined before and after in vitro digestion. The phenol content of the A20 and A21 samples were higher (>75%) than that of the SP sample before in vitro digestion. After the entire in vitro digestion, 89.3, 76.9, and 50% loss of phenols was found in A20, A21 and SP, respectively. ABTS•+ and ORAC values decreased during in vitro digestion of A20 and A21 samples, while they remained almost constant in SP. IC50 increased during digestion of A20 and A21, evidencing a loss of antioxidant capacity after the intestinal phase; an opposite IC50 trend was noted in SP, confirming the protective role of maltodextrins. For these reasons, SP represents a promising formulation to be used in the food field.

Effects of Ultrasound Technology on the Qualitative Properties of Italian Extra Virgin Olive Oil.

The development of innovative technologies in the mechanical extraction process of extra virgin olive oil can improve its quality standards through the modulation of physical, chemical and biochemical processes. Extra virgin olive oil quality and varietal differentiation are influenced by many factors, particularly the extraction. The use of ultrasound technology in the extraction process does not affect the quality, the composition, and the thermal properties of the oil, facilitating its separation from solids, and it allows the release of active compounds from the olive paste, with a positive influence on the phenolic content. In this study, the impact of ultrasound technologies was evaluated on merceological parameters, quality profile, and organoleptic features of extra virgin olive oils extracted from whole and destoned olives of the three main Italian cultivars (i.e., Peranzana, Canino, and Coratina). The parameters analyzed were influenced by both genotype and treatment, in particular, sonication did not lead to significant changes in the nutraceutical profile of the oils. The de-stoned olives were able to determine a great improvement of oil quality both for phenolic and volatile composition with a significant enhancement of health and sensory properties of the product.

Exploiting Food-Grade Mesoporous Silica to Preserve the Antioxidant Properties of Fresh Olive Mill Wastewaters Phenolic Extracts.

Fresh olive mill wastewaters phenolic extracts are of great interest as preservatives or fortifying ingredients but are characterized by limited stability. The purpose of this study was to use mesoporous silica to enhance their stability and preserve their antioxidant properties. The phenolic extracts were characterized for their composition by HPLC-DAD and included in a mesoporous matrix with or without a lipid coating. The inclusion complexes were characterized in terms of total phenolic content, radical scavenging capacity and in vitro antioxidative activity and cell compatibility. Besides, inclusion complex stability under different storage conditions (22 and 37 °C, 75% relative humidity, 1 month) was evaluated. The inclusion process was nearly quantitative and modified neither the total phenolic content nor the total antioxidant capacity. None of the inclusion complex concentrations assayed on the HT29 cell line showed toxicity. Moreover, HT29 cells treated with the inclusion complex exhibited a significant antioxidant effect, while the lipid coating impaired the antioxidant activity. The complexes without lipid were stable under all the investigated conditions, while the lipid-coated products were less stable under the more drastic conditions. Overall, inclusion complexes in mesoporous silica have suitable characteristics to be used for different applications, including food supplementation.

Chemical Composition, Antioxidant Activity, and Sensory Characterization of Commercial Pomegranate Juices.

We undertook a qualitative and quantitative assessment of the bioactive compounds, volatile substances, sensory profile, and antioxidant activity of eight different commercial pomegranate juices (PJs) differing by cultivation area, processing (from concentrate (CPJ) or not (NCPJ)), and microbial stabilization. Punicalins were the main ellagitannins, whereas the predominant anthocyanin was cyanidin 3,5-diglucoside, followed by cyanidin 3-glucoside. Total phenols, tannins, hydrolyzable tannins, and anthocyanins in the investigated juices ranged from 1379.9 to 3748.8 mg gallic acid equivalent (GAE)/L, 394.8 to 895.2 mg GAE/L, 150.8 to 2374.2 mg ellagic acid/L, and 0 to 281 mg cyanidin 3-glucoside/L, respectively. Antioxidant activity, determined by DPPH•, FRAP, and ABTS, was positively correlated with the total phenolic compounds and hydrolyzable tannins. Alcohols, acids, and furans were the volatile groups that best described the differences between juices. The most abundant volatile compound was 3-Furfural (8.6-879.9 µg/L) in those juices subjected to the concentration process and to high-temperature short-time (HTST) treatment, whereas it was not present in juice subjected to high-pressure processing (HPP). Processing also affected the juices' sensory attributes: NCPJs were characterized by 'red-purple', 'pomegranate fruit', 'fresh fruit', and 'overall intensity' notes, while in CPJs these notes were not revealed or were masked by those related to heat treatment. Our results provide useful information on the importance of extraction methods and on the overall quality of PJ for the food industry.

Application of Low Temperature during the Malaxation Phase of Virgin Olive Oil Mechanical Extraction Processes of Three Different Italian Cultivars.

The malaxation step, one of the most important phases of the virgin olive oil (VOO) mechanical extraction process involved in the development of the main quality characteristics of the final product, was carried out at a low temperature (18 °C). The rapid control of malaxer temperature was handled with the same chiller as that of the heat exchanger used in a semi-industrial extraction plant. Low temperature was used during the full olive paste kneading process and also for half of this process, which showed that there was a significant impact on the phenolic and volatile contents of VOO. Trials were conducted on three different cultivars (Canino, Moraiolo and Peranzana), and their phenolic and volatile concentrations showed different quantitative and qualitative effects due to the prolonged use of low temperature after the crushing phase, as a function of the different genetic origins of the olives. The process of phenolic compound solubilization into the oily phase was negatively influenced by the use of low temperature during the entire malaxation period for all the cultivars, whereas the volatile fraction showed an improvement in VOO flavor mainly due to the oil extracted from Canino olives.

Assessment of the olive oil extraction plant layout implementing a high-power ultrasound machine.

The objective of this study is to assess the effects of installation and operation of a high-power ultrasound machine (HPU) for the treatment of olive paste by using ultrasound technology in order to evaluate the best way installation and the best definition of the operating conditions of the machine. The study was conducted installing in an industrial olive oil mill a continuous processing ultrasound machine, which used a frequency of 20 kHz able to work at 3200 kg h-1 as feed capacity. Checking of performance has been carried out by the assessment of the different operating and process conditions, assessing in particular the impact of the ultrasound treatment before and after the malaxation phase on performance indicators of the continuous olive oil plant (plant extractability, olive paste rheological characteristic) and on selected chemical properties of the olive oil extracted (quality parameters, antioxidant content, and volatile profiles). In the tested conditions, high-power ultrasound treatment did not produce significant effect on the legal parameters (free acidity, peroxide index and spectrophotometric indexes), while a significant increase in the content of phenolic compounds was generally observed; higher enhancements were more evident when the high-power ultrasound treatment was carried out before the malaxation phase.

Overall quality evolution of extra virgin olive oil exposed to light for 10 months in different containers.

Green glass (GG), ultraviolet grade absorbing glass (UVAGG), and multilayer (plastic-coated paperboard aluminium foil) (MLP) packagings were used for storing two commercially extra virgin olive oils (EVOOs) with different phenolic and volatile compound contents to evaluate their effect on oil quality evolution over 10 months of light exposure. Quality parameters such as free acidity, peroxide value, spectrophotometric indices, antioxidant and volatile compositions as well as sensory characteristics were evaluated; packaging material type and initial antioxidant composition significantly influenced EVOOs' resistance to oxidation, and consequently their quality. Compared with GG or UVAGG, MLP provided superior protection against oxidation; oils stored in MLP containers retained their characteristics within the regulatory limits and contained more antioxidants and fewer 'rancid' defect and related volatile compounds.

High vacuum-assisted extraction affects virgin olive oil quality: Impact on phenolic and volatile compounds.

High vacuum technology has been incorporated into a new assisted extraction system applied to virgin olive oil (VOO) processing, which was tested at a lab-scale pilot plant to evaluate its impact on the physicochemical properties of the olive paste and oil. The vacuum system induced changes in the mechanical and structural properties of the olive cells, improving the coalescence of the oil droplets due to substantial cellular and intracellular mass transfer during the process, as shown by cryo-scanning electron microscopy (Cryo-SEM) analysis. The effects on the quality characteristics of VOOs extracted from three cultivars at different malaxation temperatures were evaluated. A significant increase in the phenolic content, from 25.2% to 48.6%, was observed. The content of volatile compounds responsible for the VOO flavor decreased as a function of malaxation temperature. The reduction of some volatile molecules related to the VOO off-flavor (ethanol, ethyl acetate and acetic acid) was also shown.

Dietary Supplementation with Olive Mill Wastewater in Dairy Sheep: Evaluation of Cheese Characteristics and Presence of Bioactive Molecules.

The aim of the study was to define the chemical characteristics, antioxidant capacity, oxidative status, sensory properties, and the presence of polyphenols in ovine cheese obtained after dietary administration of spray-dried olive mill wastewater (SDP). SDP is a waste from olive oil production rich in bioactive molecules obtained by further processing the olive mill wastewater through a spray-drying system. Thirty-six sheep were randomly assigned to two experimental groups that received a standard diet based on hay and concentrate. The concentrate fed to the SDP group was supplemented with SDP at a rate 25 g/kg (as fed). The trial lasted 9 weeks. Milk from the two treatment groups was separately collected and used for manufacturing cheese. Cheese quality parameters and proximate composition were not affected by the dietary treatment, whereas the antioxidant status and oxidative stability of cheese were positively affected. Polyphenol analyses in cheese were performed through liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The concentration of hydroxytyrosol and tyrosol, and their sulphate metabolites, were higher in cheese from supplemented sheep. These findings suggest that polyphenol metabolites can play a major role in the beneficial effects observed in food produced from sheep fed SDP.