Expert laparoscopist performance on virtual reality simulation tasks with and without haptic features.

BACKGROUND: Virtual reality (VR) simulation for laparoscopic training is available with and without haptic feedback features. Currently, there is limited data on haptic feedback's effect on skill development. Our objective is to compare expert laparoscopists' skills characteristics using VR delivered laparoscopic tasks via haptic and nonhaptic laparoscopic surgical interfaces. METHODS: Five expert laparoscopists performed seven skills tasks on two laparoscopic simulators, one with and one without haptic features. Tasks consisted of 2-handed instrument navigation, retraction and exposure, cutting, electrosurgery, and complicated object positioning. Laparoscopists alternated platforms at default difficulty settings. Metrics included time, economy of movement, completed task elements, and errors. Progressive change in performance for the final three iterations were determined by repeated measures ANOVA. Iteration quartile means were determined and compared using paired t-tests. RESULTS: No change in performance was noted in the last three iterations for any metric. There were no significant differences between platforms on the final two quartiles for most metrics except avoidance of over-stretch error for retraction; and cutting task was significantly better with haptics on all iteration quartiles (p < 0.03). Economy of movement was significantly better with haptics for both hands for clip application (p < 0.01) and better for right hand on complex object positioning (p < 0.05). Accuracy was better with haptics for retraction and cutting (p < 0.05) and clip application (p < 0.05). CONCLUSION: Results showed higher performance in accuracy, efficient instrument motion, and avoidance of excessive traction force on selected tasks performed on VR simulator with haptic feedback compared to those performed without haptics feedback. Laparoscopic surgeons interpreted machine-generated haptic cues appropriately and resulted in better performance with VR task requirements. However, our results do not demonstrate an advantage in skills acquisition, which requires additional study.

What are essential laparoscopic skills these days? Results of the SAGES Fundamentals of Laparoscopic Surgery (FLS) Committee technical skills survey.

INTRODUCTION: The Fundamentals of Laparoscopic Surgery (FLS) program tests basic knowledge and skills required to perform laparoscopic surgery. Educational experiences in laparoscopic training and development of associated competencies have evolved since FLS inception, making it important to review the definition of fundamental laparoscopic skills. The Society of American Gastrointestinal and Endoscopic Surgeons (SAGES) assigned an FLS Technical Skills Working Group to characterize technical skills used in basic laparoscopic surgery in current practice contexts and their possible application to future FLS tests. METHODS: A group of subject matter experts defined an inventory of 65 laparoscopic skills using a Nominal Group Technique. From these, a survey was developed rating these items for importance, frequency of use, and priority for testing for FLS certification. This survey was distributed to SAGES members, recent recipients of FLS certification, and members of the Association of Program Directors in Surgery (APDS). Results were collected using a secure web-based survey platform. RESULTS: Complete data were available for 1742 surveys. Of these, 1143 comprised results for post-residency participants who performed advanced procedures. Seventeen competencies were identified for FLS testing prioritization by determining the proportion of respondents who identified them of highest priority, at median (50th percentile) of the maximum survey scale rating. These included basic peritoneal access, laparoscope and instrument use, tissue manipulation, and specific problem management skills. Sixteen could be used to show appropriateness of the domain construct by confirmatory factor analysis. Of these 8 could be characterized as manipulative tasks. Of these 5 mapped to current FLS tasks. CONCLUSIONS: This survey-identified competencies, some of which are currently assessed in FLS, with a high level of priority for testing. Further work is needed to determine if this should prompt consideration of changes or additions to the FLS technical skills test component.

Update on the Financial Well-Being of Surgical Residents in New England.

BACKGROUND: Poor personal financial health has been linked to key components of health including burnout, substance abuse, and worsening personal relationships. Understanding the state of resident financial health is key to improving their overall well-being. STUDY DESIGN: A secondary analysis of a survey of New England general surgery residents was performed to understand their financial well-being. Questions from the National Financial Capability Study were used to compare to an age-matched and regionally matched cohort. RESULTS: Overall, 44% (250 of 570) of surveyed residents responded. Residents more frequently reported spending less than their income each year compared to the control cohort (54% vs 34%, p < 0.01). However, 17% (39 of 234) of residents reported spending more than their income each year. A total of 65% of residents (152 of 234), found it "not at all difficult" to pay monthly bills vs 17% (76 of 445) of the control cohort (p < 0.01). However, 32% (75 of 234) of residents reported it was "somewhat" or "very" difficult to pay monthly bills. Residents more frequently reported they "certainly" or "probably" could "come up with" $2,000 in a month compared to the control cohort (85% vs 62% p < 0.01), but 16% (37 of 234) of residents reported they could not. In this survey, 21% (50 of 234) of residents reported having a personal life insurance policy, 25% (59 of 234) had disability insurance, 6% (15 of 234) had a will, and 27% (63 of 234) had >$300,000 worth of student loans. CONCLUSIONS: Surgical residents have better financial well-being than an age-matched and regionally matched cohort, but there is still a large proportion who suffer from financial difficulties.

Routine Assessment of Surgical Resident Wellness-Related Concerns During Biannual Review.

BACKGROUND: Surgery residency confers stress burdens on trainees. To monitor and mitigate areas of concerns, our education team implemented a 6-item biannual survey querying potential stressors. We reviewed the initial 5-year experience to assess for trends and improve efforts in maintaining resident well-being. STUDY DESIGN: Surgery residents from all postgraduate years were asked to complete a survey of common concerns, prioritizing them in order of importance. The items to be ranked were: needs of family/friends; nonwork time for study; financial concerns; personal well-being needs; concerns for clinical performance; and administrative demands. Changes in ranking were trended across 10 review periods. Results were analyzed using a Kruskal-Wallis test. RESULTS: A completion rate of 96.5% was rendered from the completion of 333 surveys. Rankings changed significantly for nonwork time for study (p = 0.04), personal well-being needs (p = 0.03) and concerns for clinical performance (p = 0.004). Nonwork time for study and concerns on clinical performance were consistently ranked as top two stressors over study period, except for spring 2020. Personal well-being needs ranked highest in spring 2020; 41% of residents placed this as top 2 rankings. A decrease in concerns for clinical performance was observed in spring 2020, corresponding to the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic emergency declaration. CONCLUSIONS: Surgery residents generally prioritized time for study and concerns for assessment of clinical performance as highest areas of concern. With the occurrence of a pandemic, increased prioritization of personal well-being was observed. Used routinely with biannual reviews, the survey was able to identify plausible changes in resident concerns. Determination of levels of actual stress and actual association with the pandemic requires additional study.

Update on the Personal and Professional Well-Being of Surgical Residents in New England.

BACKGROUND: Surgical culture has shifted to recognize the importance of resident well-being. This is the first study to longitudinally track regional surgical resident well-being over 5 years. STUDY DESIGN: An anonymous cross-sectional, multi-institutional survey of New England general surgery residents using novel and published instruments to create three domains: health maintenance, burnout, and work environment. RESULTS: Overall, 75% (15 of 20) of programs participated. The response rate was 44% (250 of 570), and 53% (133 of 250) were women, 94% (234 of 250) were 25 to 34 years old, and 71% (178 of 250) were in a relationship. For health maintenance, 57% (143 of 250) reported having a primary care provider, 26% (64 of 250) had not seen a primary care provider in 2 years, and 59% (147 of 250) endorsed being up to date with age-appropriate health screening, but only 44% (109 of 250) were found to actually be up to date. Only 14% (35 of 250) reported exercising more than 150 minutes/week. The burnout rate was 19% (47 of 250), with 32% (81 of 250) and 25% (63 of 250) reporting high levels of emotional exhaustion and depersonalization, respectively. For program directors and attendings, 90% of residents reported that they cared about resident well-being. Eighty-seven percent of residents believed that it was acceptable to take time off during the workday for a personal appointment, but only 49% reported that they would personally take the time. CONCLUSIONS: The personal health maintenance of general surgery residents has changed little over the past five years, despite an overwhelming majority of residents reporting that attendings and program directors care about their well-being. Further study is needed to understand the barriers to improvement of resident wellbeing.

Overcoming Systems Factors in Case Logging with Artificial Intelligence Tools.

INTRODUCTION: Case logs are foundational data in surgical education, yet cases are consistently under-reported. Logging behavior is driven by multiple human and systems factors, including time constraints, ease of case data retrieval, access to data-entry tools, and procedural code decision tools. METHODS: We examined case logging trends at three mid-sized, general surgery training programs from September 2016-October 2020, January 2019-October 2020 and May 2019-October 2020, respectively. Across the programs we compared the number of cases logged per week when residents logged directly to ACGME versus via a resident education platform with machine learning-based case logging assistance tools. We examined case logging patterns across 4 consecutive phases: baseline default ACGME logging prior to platform access (P0 "Manual"), full platform logging assistance (P1 "Assisted"), partial platform assistance requiring manual data entry without data integrations (P2 "Notebook"), and resumed fully integrated platform with logging assistance (P3 "Resumed"). RESULTS: 31,385 cases were logged utilizing the platform since 2016 by 171 residents across the 3 programs.Intelligent case logging assistance significantly increased case logging rates, from 1.44 ± 1.48 cases by manual entry in P0 to 4.77 ± 2.45 cases per resident per week via the platform in P1 (p-value < 0.00001). Despite the burden of manual data entry when the platform's data connectivity was paused, the tool helped to increase overall case logging into ACGME to 2.85 ± 2.37 cases per week (p-value = 0.0002). Upon resuming the data connectivity, case logging levels rose to 4.54 ± 3.33 cases per week via the platform, equivalent to P1 levels (insignificant difference, p-value = 0.57). CONCLUSIONS: Mapping the influence of systems and human factors in high-quality case logs allows us to target interventions to continually improve the training of surgical residents. System level factors such as access to alternate automation-drive tools and operative schedule integrated platforms to assist in ACGME case log has a significant impact on the number of cases captured in logs.

Application of technology to educational needs in surgery.

Innovations in surgical education follow advancing clinical technology. New surgical methods have prompted demand for systematic methods to leverage computing power and internet tools to achieve proficiency-based training goals. Virtual reality, high-fidelity patient simulation, web-based resources to facilitate performance assessment, and telementoring have become mainstream practices, although patient outcomes benefits are not well studied. Remote virtual meeting and mentoring have had transformative effects on resident experiences, the full effects of which remain to be seen.

Use of a Secure Web-Based Data Management Platform to Track Resident Operative Performance and Program Educational Quality Over Time.

OBJECTIVE: In surgery residency programs, Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education mandated performance assessment can include assessment in the operating room to demonstrate that necessary quality and autonomy goals are achieved by the conclusion of training. For the past 3 years, our institution has used The Ottawa Surgical Competency Operating Room Evaluation (O-SCORE) instrument to assess and track operative skills. Evaluation is accomplished in near real-time using a secure web-based platform for data management and analytics (Firefly). Simultaneous to access of the platform's case logging function, the O-SCORE instrument is delivered to faculty members for rapid completion, facilitating quality, and timeliness of feedback. We sought to demonstrate the platform's utility in detecting operative performance changes over time in response to focused educational interventions based on stored case log and O-SCORE data. DESIGN: Stored resident performance assessments for the most frequently performed laparoscopic procedures (cholecystectomy, appendectomy, inguinal hernia repair, ventral hernia repair) were examined for 3 successive academic years (2016-2019). During this time, 4 of 36 residents had received program-assigned supplemental simulation training to improve laparoscopic skills. O-SCORE data for these residents were extracted from peer data, which were used for comparisons. Assigned training consisted of a range of videoscopic and virtual reality skills drills with performance objectives. O-SCORE responses were converted to integers and autonomy scores for items pertaining to technical skill were compared before and after educational interventions (Student's t-tests). These scores were also compared to aggregate scores in the nonintervention group. Bayesian-modeled learning curves were used to characterize patterns of improvement over time. SETTING: University of Massachusetts Medical School-Baystate Surgery Residency and Baystate Medical Center PARTICIPANTS: General surgery residents (n = 36) RESULTS: During the period of review, 3325 resident cases were identified meeting the case type criteria. As expected, overall autonomy increased with the number of cases performed. The 4 residents who had been assigned supplemental training (6-18 months) had preintervention score averages that were lower than that of the nonintervention group (2.25 ± 0.43 vs 3.57 ± 1.02; p < 0.0001). During the respective intervention periods, all 4 residents improved autonomy scores (increase to 3.40 ± 0.61; p < 0.0001). Similar improvements were observed for tissue handling, instrument handling, bimanual dexterity, visuospatial skill, and operative efficiency component skills. Postintervention scores were not significantly different compared to scores for the non-intervention group. Bayesian-modeled learning curves showed a similar pattern of postintervention performance improvement. CONCLUSIONS: The data management platform proved to be an effective tool to track responses to supplemental training that was deemed necessary to close defined skills gaps in laparoscopic surgery. This could be seen both in individual and in aggregated data. We were gratified that at the conclusion of the supplemental training, O-SCORE results for the intervention group were not different than those seen in the non-intervention group.

Senior General Surgery Resident Confidence in Performing Abdominal Wall Hernia Repairs.

BACKGROUND: It is expected that graduating general surgery residents be confident in performing common abdominal wall hernia repairs. The objective of our study was to assess the confidence of senior surgical residents in these procedures and to identify factors that correlate with confidence. METHODS: We performed a cross-sectional survey of PGY-4 and PGY-5 general surgery residents at ACGME-accredited programs in the United States in the spring of 2019. Respondents rated their confidence level in 12 hernia procedures on a Likert scale from 1 (not confident) to 5 (extremely confident). Respondents were classified as "Not Confident" (Not Confident, Minimally Confident, Neutral responses) or "Confident" (Confident, Extremely Confident responses). Resident characteristics, program characteristics, and operative experience were collected, and we calculated the area under the curve to screen which factors discriminated between those confident versus not. Multivariable Poisson regression was used to estimate prevalence ratios (PR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) to identify which factors were most predictive. RESULTS: A total of 93 surveys were completed. Respondents reported low confidence rates (25%-60%) in the following hernia repairs: minimally invasive (MIS) inguinal, femoral, tissue (nonmesh) inguinal, pediatric inguinal, and abdominal wall reconstruction. High confidence rates (>80%) were reported for open umbilical, open ventral, and MIS ventral hernia repairs. For MIS inguinal hernia repair, PGY-5 level was associated with a twofold increase in confidence (PR = 2.01; 95% CI = 1.34-3.30), and dedicated research years were associated with low confidence (PR = 0.67; 95% CI = 0.43-1.04). In general, higher operative volumes of a specific repair were associated with increased confidence in that procedure. CONCLUSIONS: Senior surgical residents reported low confidence in performing a variety of essential hernia repairs (particularly MIS inguinal, femoral, and tissue inguinal). Addressing factors associated with low confidence may help increase resident confidence.

Education Management Platform Enables Delivery and Comparison of Multiple Evaluation Types.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to determine whether an automated platform for evaluation selection and delivery would increase participation from surgical teaching faculty in submitting resident operative performance evaluations. DESIGN: We built a HIPAA-compliant, web-based platform to track resident operative assignments and to link embedded evaluation instruments to procedure type. The platform matched appropriate evaluations to surgeons' scheduled procedures, and delivered multiple evaluation types, including Ottawa Surgical Competency Operating Room Evaluation (O-Score) evaluations and Operative Performance Rating System (OPRS) evaluations. Prompts to complete evaluations were made through a system of automatic electronic notifications. We compared the time spent in the platform to achieve evaluation completion. As a metric for the platform's effect on faculty participation, we considered a task that would typically be infeasible without workflow optimization: the evaluator could choose to complete multiple, complementary evaluations for the same resident in the same case. For those cases with multiple evaluations, correlation was analyzed by Spearman rank test. Evaluation data were compared between PGY levels using repeated measures ANOVA. SETTING: The study took place at 4 general surgery residency programs: The University of Massachusetts Medical School-Baystate, the University of Connecticut School or Medicine, the University of Iowa Carver College of Medicine, and Maimonides Medical Center. PARTICIPANTS: From March 2017 to February 2019, the study included 70 surgical teaching faculty and 101 general surgery residents. RESULTS: Faculty completed 1230 O-Score evaluations and 106 OPRS evaluations. Evaluations were completed quickly, with a median time of 36 ± 18 seconds for O-Score evaluations, and 53 ± 51 seconds for OPRS evaluations. 89% of O-Score and 55% of OPRS evaluations were completed without optional comments within one minute, and 99% of O-Score and 82% of OPRS evaluations were completed within 2 minutes. For cases eligible for both evaluation types, attendings completed both evaluations on 74 of 221 (33%) of these cases. These paired evaluations strongly correlated on resident performance (Spearman coefficient = 0.84, p < 0.00001). Both evaluation types stratified operative skill level by program year (p < 0.00001). CONCLUSIONS: Evaluation initiatives can be hampered by the challenge of making multiple surgical evaluation instruments available when needed for appropriate clinical situations, including specific case types. As a test of the optimized evaluation workflow, and to lay the groundwork for future data-driven design of evaluations, we tested the impact of simultaneously delivering 2 evaluation instruments via a secure web-based education platform. We measured the evaluation completion rates of faculty surgeon evaluators when rating resident operative performance, and how effectively the results of evaluation could be analyzed and compared, taking advantage of a highly integrated management of the evaluative information.

Novel Educational Information Management Platform Improves the Surgical Skill Evaluation Process of Surgical Residents.

OBJECTIVE: We sought to increase compliance and timeliness of surgery resident operative evaluation, by providing faculty and residents with a Platform-linking evaluation to analytics and machine-learning-facilitated case logging. DESIGN: We built a HIPAA-compliant web-based Platform for comprehensive management of resident education information, including resident operative performance evaluations. To assess evaluation timeliness, we compared the lag time for Platform-based evaluations to that of end-of-rotation evaluations. We also assessed evaluation compliance, based on a time threshold of 5 days for Platform evaluations and 2 weeks for end-of-rotation evaluations. SETTING: University of Massachusetts, Baystate Medical Center, General Surgery Residency. PARTICIPANTS: Twenty three attendings and 43 residents for the Platform cohort; 15 services and 45 residents for the end-of-rotation cohort. RESULTS: Three hundred and fifty-eight Platform evaluations were completed by 23 attendings for 43 residents for March through October 2017. Six hundred and ten end-of-rotation evaluations by 15 attendings for 45 residents were used for comparison (September 2015 through June 2017). Of Platform evaluations, 41.3% were completed within 24 hours of the operation (16.5% in 6 hours, 33.3% in 12 hours, and 62.2% in 48 hours), with 24.3% of evaluations completed within 3 hours after e-mail reminders. In the first 6 weeks (March 1 through April 12) 4.5 ± 3.7 evaluations were completed per week compared to 18.8 ± 5.8 in the last (September 18 through October 31). Evaluation lag times improved with the use of the Platform, both for median lag of 35 days earlier (1 ± 1.5 days Platform, 36 ± 28.2 days traditional, p < 0.0001) and a mean lag of 41 days earlier (3.0 ± 4.7 days Platform, 44.0 ± 32.6 days traditional, p < 0.0001). CONCLUSIONS: Our comprehensive Platform facilitated faculty compliance with evaluation requirements and timeliness of availability of performance information (often in near real time) for both residents and residency leadership. The added value of the Platform's integration of evaluations with resident and attending case logging may account for the rapidly increasing number of operative skill evaluations over the short time span since implementation.

Outlier experienced surgeon's performances impact on benchmark for technical surgical skills training.

BACKGROUND: Training in medicine must move to an outcome-based approach. A proficiency-based progression outcome approach to training relies on a quantitative estimation of experienced operator performance. We aimed to develop a method for dealing with atypical expert performances in the quantitative definition of surgical proficiency. METHODS: In study one, 100 experienced laparoscopic surgeons' performances on virtual reality and box-trainer simulators were assessed for two similar laparoscopic tasks. In study two, 15 experienced surgeons and 16 trainee colorectal surgeons performed one simulated hand-assisted laparoscopic colorectal procedure. Performance scores of experienced surgeons in both studies were standardized (i.e. Z-scores) using the mean and standard deviations (SDs). Performances >1.96 SDs from the mean were excluded in proficiency definitions. RESULTS: In study one, 1-5% of surgeons' performances were excluded having performed significantly below their colleagues. Excluded surgeons made significantly fewer correct incisions (mean = 7 (SD = 2) versus 19.42 (SD = 4.6), P < 0.0001) and a greater proportion of incorrect incisions (mean = 45.71 (SD = 10.48) versus 5.25 (SD = 6.6), P < 0.0001). In study two, one experienced colorectal surgeon performance was >4 SDs for time to complete the procedure and >6 SDs for path length. After their exclusions, experienced surgeons' performances were significantly better than trainees for path length: P = 0.031 and for time: P = 0.002. CONCLUSION: Objectively assessed atypical expert performances were few. Z-score standardization identified them and produced a more robust quantitative definition of proficiency.

Visual spatial ability for surgical trainees: implications for learning endoscopic, laparoscopic surgery and other image-guided procedures.

BACKGROUND: In image-guided procedures, a high level of visual spatial ability may be an advantage for surgical trainees. We assessed the visual spatial ability of surgical trainees. METHODS: Two hundred and thirty-nine surgical trainees and 61 controls were tested on visual spatial ability using 3 standardised tests, the Card Rotation, Cube Comparison and Map-Planning Tests. RESULTS: Two hundred and twenty-one, 236 and 236 surgical trainees and 61 controls completed the Card Rotation test, Cube Comparison test and Map-Planning test, respectively. Two percent of surgical trainees performed statistically significantly worse than their peers on card rotation and map-planning test, > 1% on Cube Comparison test. Surgical trainees performed statistically significantly better than controls on all tests. CONCLUSIONS: Two percent of surgical trainees performed statistically significantly worse than their peers on visual spatial ability. The implication of this finding is unclear, further research is required that can look at the learning and educational portfolios of these trainees who perform poorly on visual spatial ability, and ascertain if they are struggling to learn skills for image-guided procedures.

A case report of unexpected pathology within an incarcerated ventral hernia.

INTRODUCTION: Incidence of hernial appendicitis is 0.008%, most frequently within inguinal and femoral hernias. Up to 2.5% of appendectomy patients are found to have Crohn's disease. Elucidating the etiology of inflammation is essential for directing management. PRESENTATION OF CASE: A 51-year-old female with achondroplastic dwarfism, multiple cesarean sections, and subsequent massive incisional hernia, presented with ruptured appendicitis within her incarcerated hernia. She underwent diagnostic laparoscopy, appendectomy, intra-abdominal abscess drainage, and complete reduction of ventral hernia contents. She developed a nonhealing colocutaneous fistula, causing major disruptions to her daily life. She elected to undergo hernia repair with component separation for anticipated lack of domain secondary to her body habitus. Her operative course consisted of open abdominal exploration, adhesiolysis, colocutaneous fistula repair, ileocolic resection and anastomosis, and hernia repair with bioresorbable mesh. She tolerated the procedure well. Unexpectedly, ileocolic pathology demonstrated chronic active ileitis, diagnostic of Crohn's disease. DISCUSSION: Only two cases of hernial Crohn's appendicitis have been reported, both within Spigelian hernias. Appendiceal inflammation inside a hernia sac may be attributed to ischemia from extraluminal compression of the hernia neck. This case demonstrates a rare presentation of multiple concurrent surgical disease processes, each of which impact the patient's treatment plan. CONCLUSION: This is the first report of incisional hernia appendicitis with nonhealing colocutaneous fistulas secondary to Crohn's. It is a lesson in developing a differential diagnosis of an inflammatory process within an incarcerated hernia and management of the complications related to laparoscopic hernial appendectomy in a patient with undiagnosed Crohn's disease.

A computerised test of perceptual ability for learning endoscopic and laparoscopic surgery and other image guided procedures: Score norms for PicSOr.

BACKGROUND: The aptitude to infer the shape of 3-D structures, such as internal organs from 2-D monitor displays, in image guided endoscopic and laparoscopic procedures varies. We sought both to validate a computer-generated task Pictorial Surface Orientation (PicSOr), which assesses this aptitude, and to identify norm referenced scores. METHODS: 400 subjects (339 surgeons and 61 controls) completed the PicSOr test. 50 subjects completed it again one year afterwards. RESULTS: Complete data was available on 396 of 400 subjects (99%). PicSOr demonstrated high test and re-test reliability (r = 0.807, p < 0.000). Surgeons performed better than controls' (surgeons = 0.874 V controls = 0.747, p < 0.000). Some surgeons (n = 22-5.5%) performed atypically on the test. CONCLUSIONS: PicSOr has population distribution scores that are negatively skewed. PicSOr quantitatively characterises an aptitude strongly correlated to the learning and performance of image guided medical tasks. Most can do the PicSOr task almost perfectly, but a substantial minority do so atypically, and this is probably relevant to learning and performing endoscopic tasks.

Putting the MeaT into TeaM Training: Development, Delivery, and Evaluation of a Surgical Team-Training Workshop.

BACKGROUND: Despite importance to patient care, team training is infrequently used in surgical education. To address this, a workshop was developed by the Association for Surgical Education Simulation Committee to teach team training using high-fidelity patient simulators and the American College of Surgeons-Association of Program Directors in Surgery team-training curriculum. METHODS: Workshops were conducted at 3 national meetings. Participants completed preworkshop and postworkshop questionnaires to define experience, confidence in using simulation, intention to implement, as well as workshop content quality. The course consisted of (A) a didactic review of Preparation, Implementation, and Debriefing and (B) facilitated small group simulation sessions followed by debriefings. RESULTS: Of 78 participants, 51 completed the workshops. Overall, 65% indicated that residents at their institutions used patient simulation, but only 33% used the American College of Surgeons-the Association of Program Directors in Surgery team-training modules. The workshop increased confidence to implement simulation team training (3.4 ± 1.3 vs 4.5 ± 0.9). Quality and importance were rated highly (5.4 ± 00.6, highest score = 6). CONCLUSIONS: Preparation for simulation-based team training is possible in this workshop setting, although the effect on actual implementation remains to be determined.

Identifying Opportunities for Virtual Reality Simulation in Surgical Education: A Review of the Proceedings from the Innovation, Design, and Emerging Alliances in Surgery (IDEAS) Conference: VR Surgery.

OBJECTIVES: To conduct a review of the state of virtual reality (VR) simulation technology, to identify areas of surgical education that have the greatest potential to benefit from it, and to identify challenges to implementation. BACKGROUND DATA: Simulation is an increasingly important part of surgical training. VR is a developing platform for using simulation to teach technical skills, behavioral skills, and entire procedures to trainees and practicing surgeons worldwide. Questions exist regarding the science behind the technology and most effective usage of VR simulation. A symposium was held to address these issues. METHODS: Engineers, educators, and surgeons held a conference in November 2013 both to review the background science behind simulation technology and to create guidelines for its use in teaching and credentialing trainees and surgeons in practice. RESULTS: Several technologic challenges were identified that must be overcome in order for VR simulation to be useful in surgery. Specific areas of student, resident, and practicing surgeon training and testing that would likely benefit from VR were identified: technical skills, team training and decision-making skills, and patient safety, such as in use of electrosurgical equipment. CONCLUSIONS: VR simulation has the potential to become an essential piece of surgical education curriculum but depends heavily on the establishment of an agreed upon set of goals. Researchers and clinicians must collaborate to allocate funding toward projects that help achieve these goals. The recommendations outlined here should guide further study and implementation of VR simulation.

Evaluation of advanced laparoscopic skills tasks for validity evidence.

BACKGROUND: Since fundamentals of laparoscopic surgery (FLS) represents a minimum proficiency standard for laparoscopic surgery, more advanced proficiency standards are required to address the needs of current surgical training. We wanted to evaluate the acceptance and discriminative ability of a novel set of skills building on the FLS model that could represent a more advanced proficiency standard-advanced laparoscopic surgery (ALS). METHODS: Qualitative and quantitative analyses were employed. Quantitative analysis involved comparison of expert (PGY 5+), intermediate (PGY 3-4) and novice (PGY 1-2) surgeons on FLS and ALS tasks. Composite scores included time and errors. Standard FLS errors were added to task time to create the composite score. Qualitative analysis involved thematic review of open-ended questions provided to experts participating in the study. RESULTS: Out of 48 participants, there were 15 (31 %) attendings, 3 (6 %) fellows and 30 (63 %) residents. By specialty, 54 % were general/MIS/bariatric/colorectal (GMBC) and 46 % were other (urology and gynecology). There was no difference between experience level and performance on FLS and ALS tasks for the entire cohort. However, looking at the GMBC subgroup, experts performed better than novices (p = 0.012) and intermediates performed better than novices (p = 0.057) on ALS tasks. There was no difference for the same group in FLS performance. Also, GMBC subgroup performed significantly better on FLS (p = 0.0035) and ALS (p = 0.0027) than the other subgroup. Thematic analysis revealed that the majority of experts felt that ALS was more realistic, challenging and clinically relevant for specific situations compared to FLS. CONCLUSION: For GMBC surgeons, we were able to show evidence of validity for a series of advanced laparoscopic tasks and their relationship to surgeon skill level. This study may represent the first step in the development of an advanced laparoscopic skills curriculum. Given the high degree of specialization in surgery, different advanced skills curricula will need to be developed for each specialty.

The effects of viewing axis on laparoscopic performance: a comparison of non-expert and expert laparoscopic surgeons.

BACKGROUND: While the ideal relationship of telescope viewing axis and instrument working axis in laparoscopic surgery is co-axial, it is often necessary to deviate view of the surgical field from the direction of working instruments with potentially negative implications to performance. The objectives of this study are to (1) characterize performance effects of working progressively further off telescope viewing axis and (2) compare the ability of expert laparoscopic surgeons and non-expert surgeons to compensate for the psychomotor problems imposed by off-axis viewing. METHODS: Subjects included Baystate Medical Center surgical residents between PGY 1 and PGY 5 training years and attending surgeons. Expert subjects (>250 basic and >50 advanced laparoscopic cases, N = 6) and non-expert subjects (N = 11) performed the FLS peg transfer task in a box trainer configured to accept a laparoscope inserted at 0°, 45°, 90°, 135°, and 180° viewing angles relative to axis of working instruments. Performance measures included time to task completion (seconds), errors (# dropped objects), and percent completed transfers. Statistical analysis took into account repeated measures within each subject for each performance measure. Trends were assessed using linear contrasts for trend (p-trend). Differences between experts and non-experts were evaluated using an interaction term (p-interaction). RESULTS: Overall there was increased time to completion (p < 0.001), increased number of dropped pegs (p < 0.001), and decreased percentage of completed transfers (<0.001) as the viewing axis relative to working instruments increased from 0° to 180°. Overall, expert laparoscopic surgeons demonstrated significantly shorter time to completion (p < 0.0027), fewer dropped pegs (p < 0.001), and higher percentage of completed peg transfers (p < 0.0001) compared to non-expert surgeons. CONCLUSIONS: Surgeon performance degrades as viewing axis increases from 0° to 180° relative to working instruments. Expert laparoscopic surgeons perform better than non-expert surgeons when working off the laparoscope viewing axis.

Ramifications of single-port laparoscopic surgery: measuring differences in task performance using simulation.

INTRODUCTION: Single-port laparoscopic surgery imposes unique psychomotor challenges. We used surgical simulation to define performance differences between surgeons with and without single-port clinical experience and examined whether a short course of training resulted in improved performance. METHODS: Study participants were assigned to 3 groups: resident group (RES), experienced laparoscopic surgeons with (SP) and without (LAP) prior single-port laparoscopic experience. Participants performed the Fundamentals of Laparoscopic Surgery precision cutting task on a ProMIS trainer through conventional ports or with articulating instruments via a SILS Port (Covidien, Inc). Two iterations of each method were performed. Then, 6 residents performed 10 successive single-port iterations to assess the effect of practice on task performance. RESULTS: The SP group had faster task times for both laparoscopic (P = .0486) and single-port (P = .0238) methods. The LAP group had longer path lengths for the single-port task than for the laparoscopic task (P = .03). The RES group was slower (P = .0019), with longer path length (P = .0010) but with greater smoothness (P = .0186) on the single-port task than the conventional laparoscopic task. Resident performance task time (P = .005) and smoothness (P = .045) improved with successive iterations. DISCUSSION: Our data show that surgeons with clinical single-port surgery experience perform a simulated single-port surgical task better than inexperienced single-port surgeons. Furthermore, this performance is comparable to that achieved with conventional laparoscopic techniques. Performance of residents declined dramatically when confronted with the challenges of the single-port task but improved with practice. These results suggest a role for lab-based single-port training.