Hyphal Als proteins act as CR3 ligands to promote immune responses against Candida albicans.

Patients with decreased levels of CD18 (ß2 integrins) suffer from life-threatening bacterial and fungal infections. CD11b, the α subunit of integrin CR3 (CD11b/CD18, αMß2), is essential for mice to fight against systemic Candida albicans infections. Live elongating C. albicans activates CR3 in immune cells. However, the hyphal ligands that activate CR3 are not well defined. Here, we discovered that the C. albicans Als family proteins are recognized by the I domain of CD11b in macrophages. This recognition synergizes with the ß-glucan-bound lectin-like domain to activate CR3, thereby promoting Syk signaling and inflammasome activation. Dectin-2 activation serves as the "outside-in signaling" for CR3 activation at the entry site of incompletely sealed phagosomes, where a thick cuff of F-actin forms to strengthen the local interaction. In vitro, CD18 partially contributes to IL-1ß release from dendritic cells induced by purified hyphal Als3. In vivo, Als3 is vital for C. albicans clearance in mouse kidneys. These findings uncover a novel family of ligands for the CR3 I domain that promotes fungal clearance.

Candida albicans stimulates formation of a multi-receptor complex that mediates epithelial cell invasion during oropharyngeal infection.

Fungal invasion of the oral epithelium is central to the pathogenesis of oropharyngeal candidiasis (OPC). Candida albicans invades the oral epithelium by receptor-induced endocytosis but this process is incompletely understood. We found that C. albicans infection of oral epithelial cells induces c-Met to form a multi-protein complex with E-cadherin and the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR). E-cadherin is necessary for C. albicans to activate both c-Met and EGFR and to induce the endocytosis of C. albicans. Proteomics analysis revealed that c-Met interacts with C. albicans Hyr1, Als3 and Ssa1. Both Hyr1 and Als3 are required for C. albicans to stimulate c-Met and EGFR in oral epithelial cells in vitro and for full virulence during OPC in mice. Treating mice with small molecule inhibitors of c-Met and EGFR ameliorates OPC, demonstrating the potential therapeutic efficacy of blocking these host receptors for C. albicans.

Candida albicans Oropharyngeal Infection Is an Exception to Iron-Based Nutritional Immunity.

Candida albicans is a commensal of the human gastrointestinal tract and a common cause of human fungal disease, including mucosal infections, such as oropharyngeal candidiasis and disseminated infections of the bloodstream and deep organs. We directly compared the in vivo transcriptional profile of C. albicans during oral infection and disseminated infection of the kidney to identify niche specific features. Overall, 97 genes were differentially expressed between the 2 infection sites. Virulence-associated genes, such as hyphae-specific transcripts, were expressed similarly in the 2 sites. Genes expressed during growth in a poor carbon source (ACS1 and PCK1) were upregulated in oral tissue relative to kidney. Most strikingly, C. albicans in oral tissue shows the transcriptional hallmarks of an iron replete state while in the kidney it is in the expected iron starved state. Interestingly, C. albicans expresses genes associated with a low zinc environment in both niches. Consistent with these expression data, strains lacking transcription factors that regulate iron responsive genes (SEF1, HAP5) have no effect on virulence in a mouse model of oral candidiasis. During microbial infection, the host sequesters iron, zinc, and other metal nutrients to suppress growth of the pathogen in a process called nutritional immunity. Our results indicate that C. albicans is subject to iron and zinc nutritional immunity during disseminated infection but not to iron nutritional immunity during oral infection. IMPORTANCE Nutritional immunity is a response by which infected host tissue sequesters nutrients, such as iron, to prevent the microbe from efficiently replicating. Microbial pathogens subjected to iron nutritional immunity express specific genes to compensate for low iron availability. By comparing the gene expression profiles of the common human fungal pathogen Candida albicans in 2 infection sites, we found that C. albicans infecting the kidney has the transcriptional profile of iron starvation. By contrast, the C. albicans expression profile during oropharyngeal infection indicates the fungus is not iron starved. Two transcription factors that activate the transcriptional response to iron starvation are not required for C. albicans virulence during oral infection but are required for disseminated infection of the kidney. Thus, our results indicate that C. albicans is subject to nutritional iron immunity during disseminated infection but not during oropharyngeal infection, and highlight niche specific differences in the host-Candida albicans interaction.

Candida albicans oropharyngeal infection is an exception to iron-based nutritional immunity.

Candida albicans is a commensal of the human gastrointestinal tract and one of the most causes of human fungal disease, including mucosal infections such as oropharyngeal candidiasis and disseminated infections of the bloodstream and deep organs. We directly compared the in vivo transcriptional profile of C. albicans during oral infection and disseminated infection of the kidney to identify niche specific features. Although the expression of a set of environmentally responsive genes were correlated in the two infection sites (Pearson R 2 , 0.6), XXX genes were differentially expressed. Virulence associated genes such as hyphae-specific transcripts were expressed similarly in the two sites. Genes expressed during growth in a poor carbon source ( ACS1 and PCK1 ) were upregulated in oral tissue relative to kidney. Most strikingly, C. albicans in oral tissue shows the transcriptional hallmarks of an iron-replete state while in the kidney it is in the expected iron starved state. Interestingly, C. albicans expresses genes associated with a low zinc environment in both niches. Consistent with these expression data, deletion of two transcription factors that activate iron uptake genes ( SEF1 , HAP5 ) have no effect on virulence in a mouse model of oral candidiasis. During microbial infection, the host sequesters iron and other metal nutrients to suppress growth of the pathogen in a process called nutritional immunity. Our results indicate that C. albicans is subject to iron and zinc nutritional immunity during disseminated infection but is exempted from iron nutritional immunity during oral infection.

Use of the Iron-Responsive RBT5 Promoter for Regulated Expression in Candida albicans.

Engineered conditional gene expression is used in appraisal of gene function and pathway relationships. For pathogens like the fungus Candida albicans, conditional expression systems are most useful if they are active in the infection environment and if they can be utilized in multiple clinical isolates. Here, we describe such a system. It employs the RBT5 promoter and can be implemented with a few PCRs. We validated the system with RBT5 promoter fusions to two genes that promote filamentation and polarized growth, UME6 and HGC1, and with efg1Δ/Δ mutants, which are defective in an activator of filamentous growth. An RBT5 promoter fusion to either gene enabled filamentous growth of an efg1Δ/Δ mutant of strain SC5314 in iron-limited media, including RPMI with serum and yeast extract-peptone-dextrose with bathophenanthrolinedisulfonic acid. The RBT5-UME6 fusion promoted filamentation of efg1Δ/Δ mutants in RPMI with serum of four other clinical C. albicans isolates as well. In a mouse model of disseminated candidiasis, the RBT5-UME6 fusion promoted filamentation of the SC5314 efg1Δ/Δ mutant in kidney tissue, an indication that the RBT5 promoter is active in the iron-limited host environment. The RBT5 promoter expands the conditional expression toolkit for C. albicans genetics. IMPORTANCE Genetic strategies have been vital for mechanistic analysis of biological processes. Here, we describe a genetic tool for the fungal pathogen Candida albicans.

The Globular C1q Receptor Is Required for Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor Signaling during Candida albicans Infection.

During oropharyngeal candidiasis, Candida albicans activates the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), which induces oral epithelial cells to endocytose the fungus and synthesize proinflammatory mediators. To elucidate EGFR signaling pathways that are stimulated by C. albicans, we used proteomics to identify 1,214 proteins that were associated with EGFR in C. albicans-infected cells. Seven of these proteins were selected for additional study. Among these proteins, WW domain-binding protein 2, Toll-interacting protein, interferon-induced transmembrane protein 3 (IFITM3), and the globular C1q receptor (gC1qR) were found to associate with EGFR in viable oral epithelial cells. Each of these proteins was required for maximal endocytosis of C. albicans, and all regulated fungus-induced production of interleukin-1ß (IL-1ß) and/or IL-8, either positively or negatively. gC1qR was found to function as a key coreceptor with EGFR. Interacting with the C. albicans Als3 invasin, gC1qR was required for the fungus to induce autophosphorylation of both EGFR and the ephrin type A receptor 2. The combination of gC1qR and EGFR was necessary for maximal endocytosis of C. albicans and secretion of IL-1ß, IL-8, and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) by human oral epithelial cells. In mouse oral epithelial cells, inhibition of gC1qR failed to block C. albicans-induced phosphorylation, and knockdown of IFITM3 did not inhibit C. albicans endocytosis, indicating that gC1qR and IFITM3 function differently in mouse versus human oral epithelial cells. Thus, this work provides an atlas of proteins that associate with EGFR and identifies several that play a central role in the response of human oral epithelial cells to C. albicans infection. IMPORTANCE Oral epithelial cells play a key role in the pathogenesis of oropharyngeal candidiasis. In addition to being target host cells for C. albicans adherence and invasion, they secrete proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines that recruit T cells and activated phagocytes to foci of infection. It is known that C. albicans activates EGFR on oral epithelial cells, which induces these cells to endocytose the organism and stimulates them to secrete proinflammatory mediators. To elucidate the EGFR signaling pathways that govern these responses, we analyzed the epithelial cell proteins that associate with EGFR in C. albicans-infected epithelial cells. We identified four proteins that physically associate with EGFR and that regulate different aspects of the epithelial response to C. albicans. One of these is gC1qR, which is required for C. albicans to activate EGFR, induce endocytosis, and stimulate the secretion of proinflammatory mediators, indicating that gC1qR functions as a key coreceptor with EGFR.

Activation of EphA2-EGFR signaling in oral epithelial cells by Candida albicans virulence factors.

During oropharyngeal candidiasis (OPC), Candida albicans invades and damages oral epithelial cells, which respond by producing proinflammatory mediators that recruit phagocytes to foci of infection. The ephrin type-A receptor 2 (EphA2) detects ß-glucan and plays a central role in stimulating epithelial cells to release proinflammatory mediators during OPC. The epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) also interacts with C. albicans and is known to be activated by the Als3 adhesin/invasin and the candidalysin pore-forming toxin. Here, we investigated the interactions among EphA2, EGFR, Als3 and candidalysin during OPC. We found that EGFR and EphA2 constitutively associate with each other as part of a heteromeric physical complex and are mutually dependent for C. albicans-induced activation. Als3-mediated endocytosis of a C. albicans hypha leads to the formation of an endocytic vacuole where candidalysin accumulates at high concentration. Thus, Als3 potentiates targeting of candidalysin, and both Als3 and candidalysin are required for C. albicans to cause maximal damage to oral epithelial cells, sustain activation of EphA2 and EGFR, and stimulate pro-inflammatory cytokine and chemokine secretion. In the mouse model of OPC, C. albicans-induced production of CXCL1/KC and CCL20 is dependent on the presence of candidalysin and EGFR, but independent of Als3. The production of IL-1α and IL-17A also requires candidalysin but is independent of Als3 and EGFR. The production of TNFα requires Als1, Als3, and candidalysin. Collectively, these results delineate the complex interplay among host cell receptors EphA2 and EGFR and C. albicans virulence factors Als1, Als3 and candidalysin during the induction of OPC and the resulting oral inflammatory response.

Proteomic profiling of the monothiol glutaredoxin Grx3 reveals its global role in the regulation of iron dependent processes.

Iron is an essential nutrient required as a cofactor for many biological processes. As a fungal commensal-pathogen of humans, Candida albicans encounters a range of bioavailable iron levels in the human host and maintains homeostasis with a conserved regulatory circuit. How C. albicans senses and responds to iron availability is unknown. In model yeasts, regulation of the iron homeostasis circuit requires monothiol glutaredoxins (Grxs), but their functions beyond the regulatory circuit are unclear. Here, we show Grx3 is required for virulence and growth on low iron for C. albicans. To explore the global roles of Grx3, we applied a proteomic approach and performed in vivo cross-linked tandem affinity purification coupled with mass spectrometry. We identified a large number of Grx3 interacting proteins that function in diverse biological processes. This included Fra1 and Bol2/Fra2, which function with Grxs in intracellular iron trafficking in other organisms. Grx3 interacts with and regulates the activity of Sfu1 and Hap43, components of the C. albicans iron regulatory circuit. Unlike the regulatory circuit, which determines expression or repression of target genes in response to iron availability, Grx3 amplifies levels of gene expression or repression. Consistent with the proteomic data, the grx3 mutant is sensitive to heat shock, oxidative, nitrosative, and genotoxic stresses, and shows growth dependence on histidine, leucine, and tryptophan. We suggest Grx3 is a conserved global regulator of iron-dependent processes occurring within the cell.

Roles of Candida albicans Mig1 and Mig2 in glucose repression, pathogenicity traits, and SNF1 essentiality.

Metabolic adaptation is linked to the ability of the opportunistic pathogen Candida albicans to colonize and cause infection in diverse host tissues. One way that C. albicans controls its metabolism is through the glucose repression pathway, where expression of alternative carbon source utilization genes is repressed in the presence of its preferred carbon source, glucose. Here we carry out genetic and gene expression studies that identify transcription factors Mig1 and Mig2 as mediators of glucose repression in C. albicans. The well-studied Mig1/2 orthologs ScMig1/2 mediate glucose repression in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae; our data argue that C. albicans Mig1/2 function similarly as repressors of alternative carbon source utilization genes. However, Mig1/2 functions have several distinctive features in C. albicans. First, Mig1 and Mig2 have more co-equal roles in gene regulation than their S. cerevisiae orthologs. Second, Mig1 is regulated at the level of protein accumulation, more akin to ScMig2 than ScMig1. Third, Mig1 and Mig2 are together required for a unique aspect of C. albicans biology, the expression of several pathogenicity traits. Such Mig1/2-dependent traits include the abilities to form hyphae and biofilm, tolerance of cell wall inhibitors, and ability to damage macrophage-like cells and human endothelial cells. Finally, Mig1 is required for a puzzling feature of C. albicans biology that is not shared with S. cerevisiae: the essentiality of the Snf1 protein kinase, a central eukaryotic carbon metabolism regulator. Our results integrate Mig1 and Mig2 into the C. albicans glucose repression pathway and illuminate connections among carbon control, pathogenicity, and Snf1 essentiality.

Selection of Candida albicans trisomy during oropharyngeal infection results in a commensal-like phenotype.

When the fungus Candida albicans proliferates in the oropharyngeal cavity during experimental oropharyngeal candidiasis (OPC), it undergoes large-scale genome changes at a much higher frequency than when it grows in vitro. Previously, we identified a specific whole chromosome amplification, trisomy of Chr6 (Chr6x3), that was highly overrepresented among strains recovered from the tongues of mice with OPC. To determine the functional significance of this trisomy, we assessed the virulence of two Chr6 trisomic strains and a Chr5 trisomic strain in the mouse model of OPC. We also analyzed the expression of virulence-associated traits in vitro. All three trisomic strains exhibited characteristics of a commensal during OPC in mice. They achieved the same oral fungal burden as the diploid progenitor strain but caused significantly less weight loss and elicited a significantly lower inflammatory host response. In vitro, all three trisomic strains had reduced capacity to adhere to and invade oral epithelial cells and increased susceptibility to neutrophil killing. Whole genome sequencing of pre- and post-infection isolates found that the trisomies were usually maintained. Most post-infection isolates also contained de novo point mutations, but these were not conserved. While in vitro growth assays did not reveal phenotypes specific to de novo point mutations, they did reveal novel phenotypes specific to each lineage. These data reveal that during OPC, clones that are trisomic for Chr5 or Chr6 are selected and they facilitate a commensal-like phenotype.

Inhibiting mitochondrial phosphate transport as an unexploited antifungal strategy.

The development of effective antifungal therapeutics remains a formidable challenge because of the close evolutionary relationship between humans and fungi. Mitochondrial function may present an exploitable vulnerability because of its differential utilization in fungi and its pivotal roles in fungal morphogenesis, virulence, and drug resistance already demonstrated by others. We now report mechanistic characterization of ML316, a thiohydantoin that kills drug-resistant Candida species at nanomolar concentrations through fungal-selective inhibition of the mitochondrial phosphate carrier Mir1. Using genetic, biochemical, and metabolomic approaches, we established ML316 as the first Mir1 inhibitor. Inhibition of Mir1 by ML316 in respiring yeast diminished mitochondrial oxygen consumption, resulting in an unusual metabolic catastrophe marked by citrate accumulation and death. In a mouse model of azole-resistant oropharyngeal candidiasis, ML316 reduced fungal burden and enhanced azole activity. Targeting Mir1 could provide a new, much-needed therapeutic strategy to address the rapidly rising burden of drug-resistant fungal infection.

EphA2 is an epithelial cell pattern recognition receptor for fungal ß-glucans.

Oral epithelial cells discriminate between pathogenic and non-pathogenic stimuli, and only induce an inflammatory response when they are exposed to high levels of a potentially harmful microorganism. The pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) in epithelial cells that mediate this differential response are poorly understood. Here, we demonstrate that the ephrin type-A receptor 2 (EphA2) is an oral epithelial cell PRR that binds to exposed ß-glucans on the surface of the fungal pathogen Candida albicans. Binding of C. albicans to EphA2 on oral epithelial cells activates signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 and mitogen-activated protein kinase signalling in an inoculum-dependent manner, and is required for induction of a proinflammatory and antifungal response. EphA2 -/- mice have impaired inflammatory responses and reduced interleukin-17 signalling during oropharyngeal candidiasis, resulting in more severe disease. Our study reveals that EphA2 functions as a PRR for ß-glucans that senses epithelial cell fungal burden and is required for the maximal mucosal inflammatory response to C. albicans.

The Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor Governs Epithelial Cell Invasion during Oropharyngeal Candidiasis.

Oropharyngeal candidiasis (OPC), caused predominantly by Candida albicans, is a prevalent infection in patients with advanced AIDS, defects in Th17 immunity, and head and neck cancer. A characteristic feature of OPC is fungal invasion of the oral epithelial cells. One mechanism by which C. albicans hyphae can invade oral epithelial cells is by expressing the Als3 and Ssa1 invasins that interact with the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) on epithelial cells and stimulate endocytosis of the organism. However, the signaling pathways that function downstream of EGFR and mediate C. albicans endocytosis are poorly defined. Here, we report that C. albicans infection activates the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR), leading to activation of Src family kinases (SFKs), which in turn phosphorylate EGFR and induce endocytosis of the fungus. Furthermore, treatment of oral epithelial cells with interferon gamma inhibits fungal endocytosis by inducing the synthesis of kynurenines, which cause prolonged activation of AhR and SFKs, thereby interfering with C. albicans-induced EGFR signaling. Treatment of both immunosuppressed and immunocompetent mice with an AhR inhibitor decreases phosphorylation of SFKs and EGFR in the oral mucosa, reduces fungal invasion, and lessens the severity of OPC. Thus, our data indicate that AhR plays a central role in governing the pathogenic interactions of C. albicans with oral epithelial cells during OPC and suggest that this receptor is a potential therapeutic target.IMPORTANCE OPC is caused predominantly by the fungus C. albicans, which can invade the oral epithelium by several mechanisms. One of these mechanisms is induced endocytosis, which is stimulated when fungal invasins bind to epithelial cell receptors such as EGFR. Receptor binding causes rearrangement of epithelial cell microfilaments, leading to the formation of pseudopods that engulf the fungus and pull it into the epithelial cell. We discovered AhR acts via SFKs to phosphorylate EGFR and induce the endocytosis of C. albicans Our finding that a small molecule inhibitor of AhR ameliorates OPC in mice suggests that a strategy of targeting host cell signaling pathways that govern epithelial cell endocytosis of C. albicans holds promise as a new approach to preventing or treating OPC.

Aspergillus fumigatus CalA binds to integrin α5ß1 and mediates host cell invasion.

Aspergillus fumigatus is an opportunistic fungal pathogen that invades pulmonary epithelial cells and vascular endothelial cells by inducing its own endocytosis, but the mechanism by which this process occurs is poorly understood. Here, we show that the thaumatin-like protein CalA is expressed on the surface of the A. fumigatus cell wall, where it mediates invasion of epithelial and endothelial cells. CalA induces endocytosis in part by interacting with integrin α5ß1 on host cells. In corticosteroid-treated mice, a ΔcalA deletion mutant has significantly attenuated virulence relative to the wild-type strain, as manifested by prolonged survival, reduced pulmonary fungal burden and decreased pulmonary invasion. Pretreatment with an anti-CalA antibody improves survival of mice with invasive pulmonary aspergillosis, demonstrating the potential of CalA as an immunotherapeutic target. Thus, A. fumigatus CalA is an invasin that interacts with integrin α5ß1 on host cells, induces endocytosis and enhances virulence.

Different tumor necrosis factor α antagonists have different effects on host susceptibility to disseminated and oropharyngeal candidiasis in mice.

Tumor necrosis factor α is important for the host defense against intracellular pathogens. We tested the effect of mouse analogs of human TNF-α antagonists, the rat anti-mouse TNF-α monoclonal antibody (XT22) and the soluble mouse 75 kDa TNF-α receptor fused to the Fc portion of mouse IgG1 (p75-Fc), on the susceptibility of mice to hematogenously disseminated candidiasis (HDC) and oropharyngeal candidiasis (OPC). Both XT22 and p75-Fc significantly reduced mice survival, increased kidney fungal burden, and reduced leukocyte recruitment during HDC. However, only XT22 significantly increased the oral fungal burden and reduced leukocyte recruitment during OPC. This result suggests that XT22 and p75-Fc affect host susceptibility to different types of Candida albicans infections by different inhibitory mechanisms.

Role of retrograde trafficking in stress response, host cell interactions, and virulence of Candida albicans.

In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the vacuolar protein sorting complexes Vps51/52/53/54 and Vps15/30/34/38 are essential for efficient endosome-to-Golgi complex retrograde transport. Here we investigated the function of Vps15 and Vps51, representative members of these complexes, in the stress resistance, host cell interactions, and virulence of Candida albicans. We found that C. albicans vps15Δ/Δ and vps51Δ/Δ mutants had abnormal vacuolar morphology, impaired retrograde protein trafficking, and dramatically increased susceptibility to a variety of stressors. These mutants also had reduced capacity to invade and damage oral epithelial cells in vitro and attenuated virulence in the mouse model of oropharyngeal candidiasis. Proteomic analysis of the cell wall of the vps51Δ/Δ mutant revealed increased levels of the Crh11 and Utr2 transglycosylases, which are targets of the calcineurin signaling pathway. The transcript levels of the calcineurin pathway members CHR11, UTR2, CRZ1, CNA1, and CNA2 were elevated in the vps15Δ/Δ and vps51Δ/Δ mutants. Furthermore, these strains were highly sensitive to the calcineurin-specific inhibitor FK506. Also, deletion of CHR11 and UTR2 further increased the stress susceptibility of these mutants. In contrast, overexpression of CRH11 and UTR2 partially rescued their defects in stress resistance, but not host cell interactions. Therefore, intact retrograde trafficking in C. albicans is essential for stress resistance, host cell interactions, and virulence. Aberrant retrograde trafficking stimulates the calcineurin signaling pathway, leading to the increased expression of Chr11 and Utr2, which enables C. albicans to withstand environmental stress.

Candida albicans CUG mistranslation is a mechanism to create cell surface variation.

UNLABELLED: In the human fungal pathogen Candida albicans, the CUG codon is translated 97% of the time as serine and 3% of the time as leucine, which potentially originates an array of proteins resulting from the translation of a single gene. Genes encoding cell surface proteins are enriched in CUG codons; thus, CUG mistranslation may influence the interactions of the organism with the host. To investigate this, we compared a C. albicans strain that misincorporates 28% of leucine at CUGs with a wild-type parental strain. The first strain displayed increased adherence to inert and host molecules. In addition, it was less susceptible to phagocytosis by murine macrophages, probably due to reduced exposure of cell surface ß-glucans. To prove that these phenotypes occurred due to serine/leucine exchange, the C. albicans adhesin and invasin ALS3 was expressed in Saccharomyces cerevisiae in its two natural isoforms (Als3p-Leu and Als3p-Ser). The cells with heterologous expression of Als3p-Leu showed increased adherence to host substrates and flocculation. We propose that CUG mistranslation has been maintained during the evolution of C. albicans due to its potential to generate cell surface variability, which significantly alters fungus-host interactions. IMPORTANCE: The translation of genetic information into proteins is a highly accurate cellular process. In the human fungal pathogen Candida albicans, a unique mistranslation event involving the CUG codon occurs. The CUG codon is mainly translated as serine but can also be translated as leucine. Leucine and serine are two biochemically distinct amino acids, hydrophobic and hydrophilic, respectively. The increased rate of leucine incorporation at CUG decoding triggers C. albicans virulence attributes, such as morphogenesis, phenotypic switching, and adhesion. Here, we show that CUG mistranslation masks the fungal cell wall molecule ß-glucan that is normally recognized by the host immune system, delaying its response. Furthermore, we demonstrate that two different proteins of the adhesin Als3 generated by CUG mistranslation confer increased hydrophobicity and adhesion ability on yeast cells. Thus, CUG mistranslation functions as a mechanism to create protein diversity with differential activities, constituting an advantage for a mainly asexual microorganism. This could explain its preservation during evolution.

Investigation of the function of Candida albicans Als3 by heterologous expression in Candida glabrata.

During hematogenously disseminated infection, blood-borne Candida albicans invades the endothelial cell lining of the vasculature to invade the deep tissues. Although the C. albicans Als3 invasin is critical for invasion and damage of endothelial cells in vitro, a C. albicans als3Δ/Δ mutant has normal virulence in the mouse model of disseminated infection. We hypothesized that the contribution of Als3 to virulence is obscured by the presence of additional C. albicans invasins. To elucidate the in vivo function of Als3, we heterologously expressed C. albicans ALS3 in Candida glabrata, a yeast that lacks a close ALS3 ortholog and has low virulence in mice. We found that following intravenous inoculation into mice, the ALS3-expressing strain preferentially trafficked to the brain, where it induced significantly elevated levels of myeloperoxidase, tumor necrosis factor, monocyte chemoattractant protein 1, and gamma interferon. Also, the ALS3-expressing strain had enhanced adherence to and invasion of human brain microvascular endothelial cells in vitro, demonstrating a potential mechanism for ALS3-mediated neurotropism. In addition, upon initiation of infection, the ALS3-expressing strain had increased trafficking to the cortex of the kidneys. With prolonged infection, this strain persisted in the kidneys at significantly higher levels than the control strain but did not induce an elevated inflammatory response. Finally, the ALS3-expressing strain had increased resistance to neutrophil killing in vitro. These results indicate that during disseminated infection, Als3 mediates initial trafficking to the brain and renal cortex and contributes to fungal persistence in the kidneys.

SR-like RNA-binding protein Slr1 affects Candida albicans filamentation and virulence.

Candida albicans causes both mucosal and disseminated infections, and its capacity to grow as both yeast and hyphae is a key virulence factor. Hyphal formation is a type of polarized growth, and members of the SR (serine-arginine) family of RNA-binding proteins influence polarized growth of both Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Aspergillus nidulans. Therefore, we investigated whether SR-like proteins affect filamentous growth and virulence of C. albicans. BLAST searches with S. cerevisiae SR-like protein Npl3 (ScNpl3) identified two C. albicans proteins: CaNpl3, an apparent ScNpl3 ortholog, and Slr1, another SR-like RNA-binding protein with no close S. cerevisiae ortholog. Whereas ScNpl3 was critical for growth, deletion of NPL3 in C. albicans resulted in few phenotypic changes. In contrast, the slr1Δ/Δ mutant had a reduced growth rate in vitro, decreased filamentation, and impaired capacity to damage epithelial and endothelial cells in vitro. Mice infected intravenously with the slr1Δ/Δ mutant strain had significantly prolonged survival compared to that of mice infected with the wild-type or slr1Δ/Δ mutant complemented with SLR1 (slr1Δ/Δ+SLR1) strain, without a concomitant decrease in kidney fungal burden. Histopathology, however, revealed differential localization of slr1Δ/Δ hyphal and yeast morphologies within the kidney. Mice infected with slr1Δ/Δ cells also had an increased brain fungal burden, which correlated with increased invasion of brain, but not umbilical vein, endothelial cells in vitro. The enhanced brain endothelial cell invasion was likely due to the increased surface exposure of the Als3 adhesin on slr1Δ/Δ cells. Our results indicate that Slr1 is an SR-like protein that influences C. albicans growth, filamentation, host cell interactions, and virulence.

EGFR and HER2 receptor kinase signaling mediate epithelial cell invasion by Candida albicans during oropharyngeal infection.

The fungus Candida albicans is the major cause of oropharyngeal candidiasis (OPC). A key feature of this disease is fungal invasion of oral epithelial cells, a process that can occur by active penetration and fungal-induced endocytosis. Two invasins, Als3 and Ssa1, induce epithelial cell endocytosis of C. albicans, in part by binding to E-cadherin. However, inhibition of E-cadherin function only partially reduces C. albicans endocytosis, suggesting that there are additional epithelial cell receptors for this organism. Here, we show that the EGF receptor (EGFR) and HER2 function cooperatively to induce the endocytosis of C. albicans hyphae. EGFR and HER2 interact with C. albicans in an Als3- and Ssa1-dependent manner, and this interaction induces receptor autophosphorylation. Signaling through both EGFR and HER2 is required for maximal epithelial cell endocytosis of C. albicans in vitro. Importantly, oral infection with C. albicans stimulates the phosphorylation of EGFR and HER2 in the oral mucosa of mice, and treatment with a dual EGFR and HER2 kinase inhibitor significantly decreases this phosphorylation and reduces the severity of OPC. These results show the importance of EGFR and HER2 signaling in the pathogenesis of OPC and indicate the feasibility of treating candidal infections by targeting the host cell receptors with which the fungus interacts.