COVID-19 and liver injury: An ongoing challenge.

The new coronavirus severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) was identified in December 2019, in Wuhan, China. The virus was rapidly spread worldwide, causing coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. Although COVID-19 is presented, usually, with typical respiratory symptoms (i.e., dyspnea, cough) and fever, extrapulmonary manifestations are also encountered. Liver injury is a common feature in patients with COVID-19 and ranges from mild and temporary elevation of liver enzymes to severe liver injury and, even, acute liver failure. The pathogenesis of liver damage is not clearly defined; multiple mechanisms contribute to liver disorder, including direct cytopathic viral effect, cytokine storm and immune-mediated hepatitis, hypoxic injury, and drug-induced liver toxicity. Patients with underlying chronic liver disease (i.e., cirrhosis, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, alcohol-related liver disease, hepatocellular carcinoma, etc.) may have greater risk to develop both severe COVID-19 and further liver deterioration, and, as a consequence, certain issues should be considered during disease management. The aim of this review is to present the prevalence, clinical manifestation and pathophysiological mechanisms of liver injury in patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection. Moreover, we overview the association between chronic liver disease and SARS-CoV-2 infection and we briefly discuss the management of liver injury during COVID-19.

Smoking among adolescents in Northern Greece: a large cross-sectional study about risk and preventive factors.

BACKGROUND: The aim of the present study was to investigate epidemiological data about cigarette smoking in relation with risk and preventive factors among Greek adolescents. METHODS: We randomly selected 10% of the whole number of schools in Northern Greece (133 schools, 18,904 participants were included). Two anonymous questionnaires (smoker's and non-smoker's) were both distributed to all students so they selected and filled in only one. A parental signed informed consent was obtained using an informative leaflet about adolescent smoking. RESULTS: The main findings of the study were: a) 14.2% of the adolescents (mean age+/-SD: 15.3+/-1.7 years) reported regular smoking (24.1% in the age group 16-18 years), b) 84.2% of the current smokers reported daily use, c) students who live in urban and semirural areas smoke more frequently than those in rural areas, d) students in technically oriented schools smoke twice as frequent compared to those in general education, e) risk factors for smoking: male gender, low educational level of parents, friends who smoke (OR: 10.01, 95%CI: 8.53-11.74, p<0.001), frequent visits to internet cafes (OR:1.53, 95%CI: 1.35-1.74, p<0.001), parents, siblings (OR:2.24, 95%CI: 1.99-2.51, p<0.001) and favorite artist (OR:1.18, 95%CI: 1.04-1.33, p=0.009) who smoke, f) protective factors against smoking: participation in sports (OR:0.59, 95%CI: 0.53-0.67, p<0.001), watching television (OR:0.74, 95%CI 0.66-0.84, p<0.001) and influence by health warning messages on cigarette packets (OR:0.42, 95%CI: 0.37, 0.48, p<0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Even though prevalence of cigarette smoking is not too high among Greek adolescents, frequency of everyday cigarette use is alarming. We identified many social and lifestyle risk and preventive factors that should be incorporated in a national smoking prevention program among Greek adolescents.

Prevalence and risk factors for initiation of smoking in Greek high-school students.

The smoking habits of 9,276 high-school students (15-18 years old) in six cities of Northern Greece were studied using a questionnaire in order to determine the prevalence and possible risk factors for initiation of smoking. We observed that 29.6% of high-school students (32.6% of boys and 26.7% of girls) were current smokers. A percentage of 43.3% had started smoking before the age of 14. Reactive behaviour towards parents' and teachers' advice (40.2%) and the existence of smoking friends (40.1%) were the main reasons of initiation. A well-planned integrated anti-smoking campaign is urgently required, especially among students and teachers.