Cultural competency and ethical behavior for collaboration in limited-resource settings: Guidelines from the Society of University Surgeons Academic Global Surgery Committee and the Association for Academic Global Surgery.

BACKGROUND: There are an increasing number of global surgery activities worldwide. With such tremendous growth, there is a potential risk for untoward interactions between high-income country members and low-middle income country members, leading to programmatic failure, poor results, and/or low impact. METHODS: Key concepts for cultural competency and ethical behavior were generated by the Academic Global Surgery Committee of the Society for University Surgeons in collaboration with the Association for Academic Global Surgery. Both societies ensured active participation from high-income countries and low-middle income countries. RESULTS: The guidelines provide a framework for cultural competency and ethical behavior for high-income country members when collaborating with low-middle income country partners by offering recommendations for: (1) preparation for work with low-middle income countries; (2) process standardization; (3) working with the local community; (4) limits of practice; (5) patient autonomy and consent; (6) trainees; (7) potential pitfalls; and (8) gray areas. CONCLUSION: The article provides an actionable framework to address potential cultural competency and ethical behavior issues in high-income country - low-middle income country global surgery collaborations.

Peer mentorship to build research capacity among members of the International Student Surgical Network (InciSioN): a proof of concept study.

BACKGROUND: International Student Surgical Network (InciSioN) is the largest student and trainee global surgery interest group worldwide and its members have contributed significantly to global surgery research. The InciSioN Research Capacity-Building (IReCaB) program aimed to enhance the research skills and confidence of participants via a peer mentorship model. METHODS: After an open call to members of InciSioN to enroll, participants' knowledge of research methods and the process was evaluated through a test to assign mentor and mentee roles, with mentors being those who scored ≥ 20/25. Mentors then delivered a series of four webinars to help disseminate research methodology to mentees. Finally, mentees were tested on their knowledge of research and their satisfaction with the program was also evaluated. RESULTS: Fifty-two participants, mostly from LMICs (n = 23/52, 44.2%) were enrolled, and 36 completed the program. There was a significant improvement in the proportion of questions answered correctly on the post-program test (R = 0.755, p < 0.001). Post-IReCaB test scores were greater than pre-IReCaB scores (p < 0.001). The difference in confidence after the course was also significant (p < 0.001). IReCaB participants successfully designed, implemented, and published an international cross-sectional study. CONCLUSION: This study showed improvements in participants' understanding of theoretical components of scientific research. We offer a model for research capacity building that can be implemented, modeled, and further refined by similar organizations with academic research goals.

Academic Global Surgery Curricula: Current Status and a Call for a More Equitable Approach.

INTRODUCTION: We aimed to search the literature for global surgical curricula, assess if published resources align with existing competency frameworks in global health and surgical education, and determine if there is consensus around a fundamental set of competencies for the developing field of academic global surgery. METHODS: We reviewed SciVerse SCOPUS, PubMed, African Medicus Index, African Journals Online (AJOL), SciELO, Latin American and Caribbean Health Sciences Literature (LILACS) and Bioline for manuscripts on global surgery curricula and evaluated the results using existing competency frameworks in global health and surgical education from Consortium of the Universities for Global Health (CUGH) and Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education (ACGME) professional competencies. RESULTS: Our search generated 250 publications, of which 18 were eligible: (1) a total of 10 reported existing competency-based curricula that were concurrent with international experiences, (2) two reported existing pre-departure competency-based curricula, (3) six proposed theoretical competency-based curricula for future global surgery education. All, but one, were based in high-income countries (HICs) and focused on the needs of HIC trainees. None met all 17 competencies, none cited the CUGH competency on "Health Equity and Social Justice" and only one mentioned "Social and Environmental Determinants of Health." Only 22% (n = 4) were available as open-access. CONCLUSION: Currently, there is no universally accepted set of competencies on the fundamentals of academic global surgery. Existing literature are predominantly by and for HIC institutions and trainees. Current frameworks are inadequate for this emerging academic field. The field needs competencies with explicit input from LMIC experts to ensure creation of educational resources that are accessible and relevant to trainees from around the world.

Evaluation of a First Responders Course in Rural North India.

BACKGROUND: Most mortality in trauma occurs in prehospital settings when the golden hour is spent accessing healthcare facilities rather than resuscitating and stabilizing. Assessments performed in the rural community of Nanakpur, India demonstrated a significant paucity of, and limited access to healthcare facilities. To address deficiencies in prehospital care, the All-India Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMS) constructed the Basic Emergency Care Course (BECC). This study evaluated the BECCs efficacy in Nanakpur. METHODS: The first responder courses took place in 2017 in Nanakpur. Local community health workers, known as Accredited Social Health Activists (ASHAs) were recruited as participants. Participants completed both a pre- and post-course evaluation to assess baseline knowledge and improvement. Participants then took a one-year post-course assessment to evaluate retention. RESULTS: The course included 204 individuals, and over half (109/204) were ASHAs. Pre- and post-course test results were available for 70 participants and demonstrated a significant improvement in knowledge (P < 0.0001). The one-year knowledge retention assessment was completed by 48.6% (n = 53/109) of the original ASHAs. Comparisons between both the pre- and post-course assessment tests with the 12-mo retention assessment revealed a significant decay in knowledge (P < 0.0001). CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrates the feasibility of utilizing BECC to train ASHAs in Nanakpur as first responders. Participants demonstrated a significant improvement in knowledge immediately after the course. After one year, there was a significant loss in knowledge, highlighting the need for refresher courses. These data suggest potential for the use of BECC for training ASHAs countrywide to strengthen India's prehospital care system.

Closing the Gender Gap in Global Surgery: Trends at the Academic Surgical Congress.

INTRODUCTION: Female researchers are underrepresented in academic surgery. While they are increasingly producing original research, they lag male researchers in productivity. This disparity is not well understood within the nascent field of global surgery. The following study examines gender parity in global surgery research presented at the Academic Surgical Congress and within subsequent publications. METHODS: Abstracts presented at the Academic Surgical Congress (ASC) between 2015 and 2019 in "Global Surgery" sessions were reviewed to obtain title, the first author (FA) and senior author (SA). The authors were classified by gender. The Scopus database was queried by two reviewers for abstracts with corresponding publications, citations, and journal impact factors. Statistical analysis was conducted using chi-square analysis and t-tests where appropriate. RESULTS: Of a total of 6635 abstracts, 218 global surgery abstracts over a 5-year period were identified. Of these abstracts, 96 (44%) had female FAs, while 56 (26%) had female SAs. When comparing gender, female (44%) FAs and male (56%) FAs were equally represented. While SAs were significantly less likely to be female (26% versus 74%, P < 0.0001), female senior authorship increased significantly within the study period. Output with respect to publications, citations, and journal impact factors were equal by gender. CONCLUSIONS: This study presents 5 y of gender trends in global surgery scholarly work presented at the ASC. Despite an overall predominance of male senior authors, the paradigm is shifting with a recent trend to gender parity. Male and female authors have equal output and are equally impactful. Findings of gender equity in academic global surgery are encouraging, and further study of other disciplines are warranted.

SOSAS Study in Rural India: Using Accredited Social Health Activists as Enumerators.

BACKGROUND: Global estimates show five billion people lack access to safe, quality, and timely surgical care. The wealthiest third of the world's population receives approximately 73.6% of the world's total surgical procedures while the poorest third receives only 3.5%. This pilot study aimed to assess the local burden of surgical disease in a rural region of India through the Surgeons OverSeas Assessment of Surgical Need (SOSAS) survey and the feasibility of using Accredited Social Health Activists (ASHAs) as enumerators. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Data were collected in June and July 2015 in Nanakpur, Haryana from 50 households with the support of Indian community health workers, known as ASHAs. The head of household provided demographic data; two household members provided personal surgical histories. Current surgical need was defined as a self-reported surgical problem present at the time of the interview, and unmet surgical need as a surgical problem in which the respondent did not access care. RESULTS: One hundred percent of selected households participated, totaling 93 individuals. Twenty-eight people (30.1%; 95% CI 21.0-40.5) indicated they had a current surgical need in the following body regions: 2 face, 1 chest/breast, 1 back, 3 abdomen, 4 groin/genitalia, and 17 extremities. Six individuals had an unmet surgical need (6.5%; 95% CI 2.45%-13.5%). CONCLUSIONS: This pilot study in Nanakpur is the first implementation of the SOSAS survey in India and suggests a significant burden of surgical disease. The feasibility of employing ASHAs to administer the survey is demonstrated, providing a potential use of the ASHA program for a future countrywide survey. These data are useful preliminary evidence that emphasize the need to further evaluate interventions for strengthening surgical systems in rural India.

Correction to: Strengthening Surgery Strengthens Health Systems: A New Paradigm and Potential Pathway for Horizontal Development in Low- and Middle-Income Countries.

In the original article, Ziad C. Sifri's first and last names were interchanged. It is correct as reflected here.

Strengthening Surgery Strengthens Health Systems: A New Paradigm and Potential Pathway for Horizontal Development in Low- and Middle-Income Countries.

Global health is transitioning toward a focus on building strong and sustainable health systems in developing countries; however, resources, funding, and agendas continue to concentrate on "vertical" (disease-based) improvements in care. Surgical care in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) requires the development of health systems infrastructure and can be considered an indicator of overall system readiness. Improving surgical care provides a scalable gateway to strengthen health systems in multiple domains. In this position paper by the Society of University Surgeons' Committee on Global Academic Surgery, we propose that health systems development appropriately falls within the purview of the academic surgeon. Partnerships between academic surgical institutions and societies from high-income and resource-constrained settings are needed to strengthen advocacy and funding efforts and support development of training and research in LMICs.

Utilizing Technology for Global Surgery: A Survey of the West African College of Surgeons.

BACKGROUND: Information and communication technology (ICT) has been heralded as a possible mechanism for expanding global surgery collaborations. However, little is known regarding feasibility of ICT use in low- and middle-income countries (LMIC). We sought to determine the appropriate ICT platforms for surgical education initiatives and international collaborations. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We conducted a survey of members of the West African College of Surgeons. Topics included computer and internet access/utilization, familiarity with ICT, such as social media (SM), virtual document sharing platforms (VDS), virtual meeting applications (VM), and learning management systems (LM), and interest in ICT adoption. Statistical analyses were done using chi-squared tests, with Bonferroni corrections. RESULTS: Survey respondents included 83 individuals from 10 countries, 50% of whom had been in practice >10 y. All had computer access, with most (95%) using SM compared to all other modalities (P < 0.001); 77% used SM for professional reasons and 57% for education. Sixty percent of participants used VDS, 73% of whom used it for education. The utilization of other ICTs was lower (VM 43%, LM 32%). Unreliable Wi-Fi hindered every ICT, less often SM (41%) and VDS (23%), and more commonly VM (64%) and LM (52%). Despite this, VM was most often used in international collaboration (79%, P < 0.01). Most respondents (98%) supported ICT use for international collaboration. CONCLUSIONS: ICT platforms can support education initiatives and international collaborations in resource-limited areas. Deployment of similar surveys and ICT workshops across other LMIC regions could maximize ICT utilization, further expanding global surgical collaborations.

Are we meeting ACGME core competencies? A systematic review of literature on international surgical rotations.

BACKGROUND: In response to the growing interest in global surgery among trainees, international surgical rotation (ISR) was approved as a formal elective of resident curriculum. To define ISR's role, we aim to identify the six core competencies of Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education (ACGME) in individual institution's experience. DATA SOURCES: This is a systematic literature review studying general surgery resident experience in ISR as it pertains to the ACGME core competencies. Articles were searched using PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science. Each abstract and article was reviewed, selected, and tabulated. CONCLUSION: Fourteen articles were selected for the review after inclusion and exclusion criteria were applied. We found that ISR provided a valuable educational experience for US surgical residents by meeting the ACGME core competencies in a different environment. ISR is an important addition to the general surgery curriculum. Future direction should focus on bidirectional ISR and educational consortium development.

An academic career in global surgery: a position paper from the Society of University Surgeons Committee on Academic Global Surgery.

In recent years, as the high burden of surgical disease and poor access to surgical care in low- and middle-income countries have gained recognition as major public health problems, interest in global health has surged among surgical trainees and faculty. Traditionally, clinical volunteerism was at the forefront of the high-income country response to the significant burden of surgical disease in low- and middle-income countries. However, sustainable strategies for providing surgical care in low- and middle-income countries increasingly depend on bilateral clinical, research, and education collaborations to ensure effective resource allocation and contextual relevance. Academic global surgery creates avenues for interested surgeons to combine scholarship and education with their clinical global surgery passions through incorporation of basic/translational, education, clinical outcomes, or health services research with global surgery. Training in global health, either within residency or through advanced degrees, can provide the necessary skills to develop and sustain such initiatives. We further propose that creating cross-continental, bidirectional collaborations can maximize funding opportunities. Academic institutions are uniquely positioned to lead longitudinal and, importantly, sustainable global surgery efforts. However, for the individual global surgeon, the career path forward may be unclear. This paper reviews the development of academic global surgery, delineates the framework and factors critical to training global surgeons, and proposes models for establishing an academic career in this field. Overall, with determination, the academic global surgeon will not only carve out a niche of expertise but will define this critical field for future generations.

Assessment of Surgical and Trauma Capacity in Potosí, Bolivia.

BACKGROUND: Scaling up surgical and trauma care in low- and middle-income countries could prevent nearly 2 million annual deaths. Various survey instruments exist to measure surgical and trauma capacity, including Personnel, Infrastructure, Procedures, Equipment, and Supplies (PIPES) and International Assessment of Capacity for Trauma (INTACT). OBJECTIVE: We sought to evaluate surgical and trauma capacity in the Bolivian department of Potosí using a combined PIPES and INTACT tool, with additional questions to further inform intervention targets. METHODS: In June and July 2014 a combined PIPES and INTACT survey was administered to 20 government facilities in Potosí with a minimum of 1 operating room: 2 third-level, 10 second-level, and 8 first-level facilities. A surgeon, head physician, director, or obstetrician-gynecologist completed the survey. Additional personnel responded to 4 short-answer questions. Survey items were divided into subsections, and PIPES and INTACT indices calculated. Medians were compared via Wilcoxon rank sum and Kruskal-Wallis tests. FINDINGS: Six of 20 facilities were located in the capital city and designated urban. Urban establishments had higher median PIPES (8.5 vs 6.7, P = .11) and INTACT (8.5 vs 6.9, P = .16) indices compared with rural. More than half of surgeons and anesthesiologists worked in urban hospitals. Urban facilities had higher median infrastructure and procedure scores compared with rural. Fifty-three individuals completed short-answer questions. Training was most desired in laparoscopic surgery and trauma management; less than half of establishments reported staff with trauma training. CONCLUSIONS: Surgical and trauma capacity in Potosí was most limited in personnel, infrastructure, and procedures at rural facilities, with greater personnel deficiencies than previously reported. Interventions should focus on increasing the number of surgical and anesthesia personnel in rural areas, with a particular focus on the reported desire for trauma management training. Results have been made available to key stakeholders in Potosí to inform targeted quality improvement interventions.

Surgical and trauma care in low- and middle-income countries: a review of capacity assessments.

BACKGROUND: Surgical and trauma capacity assessments help guide resource allocation and plan interventions to improve care for the injured in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). To forge expert consensus on conducting these assessments, we undertook a systematic review of studies using five tools: (1) World Health Organization's (WHO) Guidelines for Essential Trauma Care, (2) WHO's Tool for Situational Analysis to Assess Emergency and Essential Surgical Care, (3) Personnel, Infrastructure, Procedures, Equipment, and Supplies tool, (4) Harvard Humanitarian Initiative tool, and (5) Emergency and Critical Care tool. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Publications describing utilization of survey instruments to assess surgical or trauma capacity in LMICs were reviewed. Included articles underwent thematic analysis to develop recommendations. A modified Delphi method was used to establish expert consensus. Experts rated recommendations on a Likert-type scale via online survey. Consensus was defined by Cronbach's α ≥ 0.80. Recommendations achieving agreement by ≥80% of experts were included. RESULTS: Two hundred and ninety-eight publications were identified and 41 included, describing evaluation of 1170 facilities across 36 LMICs. Nine recommendations were agreed upon by expert consensus: (1) inclusion of district hospitals, (2) inclusion of highest level public hospital, (3) inclusion of private facilities, (4) facility visits for on-site completion, (5) direct inspections, (6) checking surgical logs, (7) adaptation of survey instrument, (8) repeat assessments, and (9) need for increased collaboration. CONCLUSIONS: Expert recommendations developed in this review describe methodology to be employed when conducting assessments of surgical and trauma capacity in LMICs. Consensus has yet to be achieved for tool selection.

Humanitarian skill set acquisition trends among graduating US surgical residents, 2004-2014.

BACKGROUND: Although interest in practicing surgery in resource-constrained settings is on the rise among graduating US surgical residents, there is ongoing debate about an optimal humanitarian skill set for surgeons who chose to work in such settings. In addition, increased emphasis on general surgery case exposure at the cost of specialty surgery case exposure has been documented and may have a negative impact on the breadth of resident training. Review of general surgery resident case logs to gauge experience in specialty surgery may provide insight into residents' readiness for work in resource-limited settings. METHODS: We compared Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education general surgery resident case logs from 2004 to 2014 for operations thought to be essential for working in resource-constrained settings. These operations were chosen from published literature on this topic and authors' personal experience. Case numbers for specialty operations were compared by unpaired t-test analysis between the two periods. RESULTS: Case averages in pediatric, genitourinary, and gynecologic surgery decreased significantly from 2004 to 2014 (range, 27%-46%). Orthopedic surgery case averages were unchanged, and plastic and general abdominal surgery case averages increased (range, 47%-50%). CONCLUSIONS: Case mix among graduating US surgical residents has narrowed over the past 10 y. Resident experience in a variety of specialty fields, thought to be essential in resource-constrained settings, decreased markedly over the study period. Residents who intend to work in resource-constrained settings may need to craft individualized residency experiences or pursue postgraduate training in specialty surgery courses to best prepare for such work.

Assessing access to surgical care in Nepal via a cross-sectional, countrywide survey.

BACKGROUND: Adequate surgical care is lacking in many low- and middle-income countries because of diverse barriers preventing patients from reaching providers. We sought to assess perceived difficulties to accessing surgical care in Nepal using the Surgeons OverSeas Assessment of Surgical Need tool. METHODS: Fifteen of 75 Nepali districts were selected proportionate to the population, with 1,350 households surveyed. Household heads answered questions regarding access to health facilities, and 2 household members were interviewed for medical history. Continuous and categorical variables were analyzed via Wilcoxon rank sum test and Pearson χ(2) test. Multivariable logistic regressions for independent predictors of care access were performed controlling for age, sex, location, and literacy. RESULTS: Of respondents with a surgical condition (n = 1,342), 650 (48.4%) accessed care and 237 (17.7%) did not. Unadjusted analyses showed greater median travel times to all facilities (P < .001) and median transport costs to secondary and tertiary centers (P < .001) for those who did not access care versus those who did. Literate respondents were more likely to access care across all facilities and access variables in adjusted models (odds ratio 1.66-1.80, P < .01). Those without transport money were less likely to access care at any facility in all analyses (P < .01). CONCLUSION: The data project that at least 2.4 million individuals lack access to needed surgical care in Nepal during their lifetimes, with those not accessing health facilities having lower literacy rates and fewer transport resources. Promoting education, outreach programs, and transportation access could lessen barriers but will require further exploration.

Fall Injuries in Nepal: A Countrywide Population-based Survey.

BACKGROUND: An estimated 424,000 fatal falls occur globally each year, making falls the second leading cause of unintentional injury-related deaths after road traffic injuries. More than 80% of fall-related fatalities occur in low- and middle-income countries. Data from low-income South Asian countries like Nepal are lacking, particularly at the population level. The aim of this study was to provide an estimate of fall-injury prevalence and the number of fall injury-related deaths countrywide in Nepal and to describe the epidemiology of fall injuries in Nepal at the community level. METHODS: A countrywide cross-sectional study was performed in 15 of the 75 districts in Nepal using the Surgeons OverSeas Assessment of Surgical Need (SOSAS) survey tool. The SOSAS survey gathers data in 2 sections: demographic data, including the household's access to health care and recent deaths in the household, and assessment of a representative spectrum of surgical conditions, including injuries. Data was collected regarding an individuals' experience of injury including road traffic injuries, falls, penetrating trauma, and burns. Data included anatomic location, timing of injury, and whether health care was sought. If health care was not sought, the reason for barrier to care was included. Descriptive statistics were used to analyze the data. RESULTS: Of 2695 individuals from 1350 households interviewed, 141 reported injuries secondary to falls (5.2%; 95% confidence interval [CI], 4.4%-6.1%), with a mean age of 30.7 years; 58% were male. Falls represented 37.2% of total injuries (n = 379) reported (95% CI, 32.3%-42.3%). Twelve individuals who suffered from a fall injury were unable to access surgical care (8.5%; 95% CI, 4.5%-14.4%). Reasons for barrier to care included no money for health care (n = 3), facility/personnel not available (n = 7), and fear/no trust (n = 2). Of the 80 recent deaths reported, 7 were due to fall injury (8.8%; 95% CI, 3.6%-17.2%), and patients had a mean age of 46 years (SD 22.8). Surgical care was not delivered to those who died for the following reasons: no time (n = 4), facility/personnel not available (n = 1), fear/no trust (n = 1), and no need (n = 1). CONCLUSION: The Nepal SOSAS study provides countrywide, population-based data on fall-injury prevalence in Nepal and has identified falls as a crucial public health concern. These data highlight persistent barriers to access to care for the injured and the need to improve trauma care systems in developing countries such as Nepal.

Laparoscopy in trauma: An overview of complications and related topics.

The introduction of laparoscopy has provided trauma surgeons with a valuable diagnostic and, at times, therapeutic option. The minimally invasive nature of laparoscopic surgery, combined with potentially quicker postoperative recovery, simplified wound care, as well as a growing number of viable intraoperative therapeutic modalities, presents an attractive alternative for many traumatologists when managing hemodynamically stable patients with selected penetrating and blunt traumatic abdominal injuries. At the same time, laparoscopy has its own unique complication profile. This article provides an overview of potential complications associated with diagnostic and therapeutic laparoscopy in trauma, focusing on practical aspects of identification and management of laparoscopy-related adverse events.

Burden of road traffic injuries in Nepal: results of a countrywide population-based survey.

BACKGROUND: Road traffic injury has emerged as a leading cause of mortality, contributing to 2·1% of deaths globally and is predicted to be the third highest contributor to the global burden of mortality by 2020. This major public health problem disproportionately affects low-income and middle-income countries, where such incidents are too often underreported. Our study aims to explore the epidemiology of road traffic injurys in Nepal at a population level via a countrywide study. METHODS: The Surgeons OverSeas Assessment of Surgical Need (SOSAS) tool, a cluster randomised, cross-sectional nationwide survey, was conducted in Nepal between May 25, and June 12, 2014. Two-stage cluster sampling was performed: 15 of 75 districts were chosen randomly proportional to population; within each district, after stratification for urban and rural, and three clusters were randomly chosen. Questions were structured anatomically and designed around a representative spectrum of surgical conditions. Road traffic injury-related results were reported. FINDINGS: 1350 households and 2695 individuals were surveyed with a response rate of 97%. 75 road traffic injuries were reported in 72 individuals (2·67% [95% CI 2·10-3·35] of the study population), with a mean age of 33·2 years (SD 1·85). The most commonly affected age group was 30-44 years, with females showing significantly lower odds of sustaining a road traffic injury than men (crude odds ratio 0·29 [95% CI 0·16-0·52]). Road traffic injuries composed 19·8% of the injuries reported. Motorcycle crashes were the most common road traffic injuries (48·0%), followed by car, truck, or bus crashes (26·7%), and pedestrian or bicycle crashes (25·3%). The extremity was the most common anatomic site injured (74·7%). Of the 80 deaths reported in the previous year, 7·5% (n=6) were due to road traffic injuries. INTERPRETATION: This study provides the epidemiology of road traffic injuries at a population-based level in the first countrywide surgical needs assessment in Nepal. WHO reported that mortality due to road traffic injuries in Nepal in 2011 was 1·7%, whereas our study reported 7·5%, consistent with the concept of underreporting of deaths in police and hospital level data noted in previous literature. Road traffic injuries continue to be a significant problem in Nepal, probably greater than previously reported; future efforts should focus on addressing this growing epidemic through preventive and mitigating strategies. FUNDING: The Association for Academic Surgery and Surgeons OverSeas.