Mechanically and chemically defined hydrogel matrices for patient-derived colorectal tumor organoid culture.

Patient-derived tumor organoids offer potentially useful models of cancer tissue physiology. Yet, conventional organoid cultures utilize generic matrices that are difficult to tailor for various unique tumor microenvironments. Here, we employ synthetic, enzymatically crosslinked hydrogels to define mechanical and biochemical properties hypothesized to be relevant for maintaining these organoids. We show that a single extracellular matrix component, gelatin, suffices to support colorectal cancer patient-derived xenograft (CRC-PDX) organoid survival, and that high matrix stiffness synergizes with hypoxia to increase organoid growth and metabolism in a majority of CRC-PDX lines tested. Moreover, we demonstrate that defined gelatin-based hydrogels support CRC-PDX tumor growth in vivo and organoid sensitivity to various CRC therapeutic drugs in vitro in a largely comparable fashion to a conventional reconstituted basement membrane matrix. Based on our findings, we propose that enzymatically crosslinked hydrogels potentially provide a platform for designing mechanically and biochemically defined matrices for various types of patient-derived tumor organoids.

Metformin Inhibits Cellular Proliferation and Bioenergetics in Colorectal Cancer Patient-Derived Xenografts.

There is increasing preclinical evidence suggesting that metformin, an antidiabetic drug, has anticancer properties against various malignancies, including colorectal cancer. However, the majority of evidence, which was derived from cancer cell lines and xenografts, was likely to overestimate the benefit of metformin because these models are inadequate and require supraphysiologic levels of metformin. Here, we generated patient-derived xenograft (PDX) lines from 2 colorectal cancer patients to assess the properties of metformin and 5-fluorouracil (5-FU), the first-line drug treatment for colorectal cancer. Metformin (150 mg/kg) as a single agent inhibits the growth of both PDX tumors by at least 50% (P < 0.05) when administered orally for 24 days. In one of the PDX models, metformin given concurrently with 5-FU (25 mg/kg) leads to an 85% (P = 0.054) growth inhibition. Ex vivo culture of organoids generated from PDX demonstrates that metformin inhibits growth by executing metabolic changes to decrease oxygen consumption and activating AMPK-mediated pathways. In addition, we also performed genetic characterizations of serial PDX samples with corresponding parental tissues from patients using next-generation sequencing (NGS). Our pilot NGS study demonstrates that PDX represents a useful platform for analysis in cancer research because it demonstrates high fidelity with parental tumor. Furthermore, NGS analysis of PDX may be useful to determine genetic identifiers of drug response. This is the first preclinical study using PDX and PDX-derived organoids to investigate the efficacy of metformin in colorectal cancer. Mol Cancer Ther; 16(9); 2035-44. ©2017 AACR.

MED12 protein expression in breast fibroepithelial lesions: correlation with mutation status and oestrogen receptor expression.

AIMS: Recent reports have identified recurrent MED12 somatic mutations in fibroadenomas and phyllodes tumours. The frequency and type of somatic mutations were noted to be similar to those of uterine leiomyomas. We aimed to investigate protein expression of MED12, correlating it to MED12 mutational status and expression of oestrogen receptors (ER). METHODS: Immunohistochemistry was performed on a total of 232 fibroepithelial lesions (100 fibroadenomas, 132 phyllodes tumours) diagnosed at the Department of Pathology, Singapore General Hospital using MED12, ERα and ERß antibodies. Expressions were evaluated in both stroma and epithelium, and correlated with MED12 mutational status. RESULTS: MED12 mutation was significantly associated with high MED12 protein expression (H-score >150) in the stroma (p=0.029), but not in the epithelium. It was not associated with ERα and ERß protein expression in both stroma and epithelium. MED12 protein expression was significantly correlated with ERα in epithelial (p=0.007) and ERß in stromal (p=0.049) components. MED12 was not significantly different between fibroadenomas and phyllodes tumours. Epithelial expression of ERα was significantly higher in fibroadenomas (p<0.001) than in phyllodes tumours. Conversely, both epithelial and stromal expression of ERß was significantly higher in phyllodes tumours (p<0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Positive associations observed between MED12 and ERα, ERß immunohistochemical expression suggest a biological interplay between the proteins. The lack of significant association of MED12 mutation with ER protein expression indicates a need to further explore the functional impact of MED12 mutations on the ER signalling pathway in breast fibroepithelial lesions.

A five-gene reverse transcription-PCR assay for pre-operative classification of breast fibroepithelial lesions.

BACKGROUND: Breast fibroepithelial lesions are biphasic tumors and include fibroadenomas and phyllodes tumors. Preoperative distinction between fibroadenomas and phyllodes tumors is pivotal to clinical management. Fibroadenomas are clinically benign while phyllodes tumors are more unpredictable in biological behavior, with potential for recurrence. Differentiating the tumors may be challenging when they have overlapping clinical and histological features especially on core biopsies. Current molecular and immunohistochemical techniques have a limited role in the diagnosis of breast fibroepithelial lesions. We aimed to develop a practical molecular test to aid in distinguishing fibroadenomas from phyllodes tumors in the pre-operative setting. METHODS: We profiled the transcriptome of a training set of 48 formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded fibroadenomas and phyllodes tumors and further designed 43 quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) assays to verify differentially expressed genes. Using machine learning to build predictive regression models, we selected a five-gene transcript set (ABCA8, APOD, CCL19, FN1, and PRAME) to discriminate between fibroadenomas and phyllodes tumors. We validated our assay in an independent cohort of 230 core biopsies obtained pre-operatively. RESULTS: Overall, the assay accurately classified 92.6 % of the samples (AUC = 0.948, 95 % CI 0.913-0.983, p = 2.51E-19), with a sensitivity of 82.9 % and specificity of 94.7 %. CONCLUSIONS: We provide a robust assay for classifying breast fibroepithelial lesions into fibroadenomas and phyllodes tumors, which could be a valuable tool in assisting pathologists in differential diagnosis of breast fibroepithelial lesions.

Genomic landscapes of breast fibroepithelial tumors.

Breast fibroepithelial tumors comprise a heterogeneous spectrum of pathological entities, from benign fibroadenomas to malignant phyllodes tumors. Although MED12 mutations have been frequently found in fibroadenomas and phyllodes tumors, the landscapes of genetic alterations across the fibroepithelial tumor spectrum remain unclear. Here, by performing exome sequencing of 22 phyllodes tumors followed by targeted sequencing of 100 breast fibroepithelial tumors, we observed three distinct somatic mutation patterns. First, we frequently observed MED12 and RARA mutations in both fibroadenomas and phyllodes tumors, emphasizing the importance of these mutations in fibroepithelial tumorigenesis. Second, phyllodes tumors exhibited mutations in FLNA, SETD2 and KMT2D, suggesting a role in driving phyllodes tumor development. Third, borderline and malignant phyllodes tumors harbored additional mutations in cancer-associated genes. RARA mutations exhibited clustering in the portion of the gene encoding the ligand-binding domain, functionally suppressed RARA-mediated transcriptional activation and enhanced RARA interactions with transcriptional co-repressors. This study provides insights into the molecular pathogenesis of breast fibroepithelial tumors, with potential clinical implications.

Second harmonic generation microscopy is a novel technique for differential diagnosis of breast fibroepithelial lesions.

Breast fibroepithelial lesions, including fibroadenomas and phyllodes tumours, are commonly encountered in clinical practice. As histological differences between these two related entities may be subtle, resulting in a challenging differential diagnosis, pathological techniques to assist the differential diagnosis of these two entities are of high interest. An accurate diagnosis at biopsy is important given corresponding implications for clinical decision-making including surgical extent and monitoring. Second harmonic generation (SHG) microscopy is a recently developed optical imaging technique capable of robust, powerful and unbiased label-free direct detection of collagen fibril structure in tissue without the use of antibodies. We constructed tissue microarrays emulating limited materials on biopsy to investigate quantitative collagen signal in fibroepithelial lesions using SHG microscopy. Archived formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded materials of 47 fibroepithelial lesions (14 fibroadenomas and 33 phyllodes tumours) were evaluated. Higher collagen signal on SHG microscopy was observed in fibroadenomas than phyllodes tumours on SHG imaging (p<0.001, area under the curve 0.859). At an automated threshold (2.5 million positive pixels), the sensitivity and specificity of the SHG microscopy for fibroadenoma classification was 71.4% and 84.4%, respectively. To corroborate these findings, we performed immunohistochemistry on tissue array sections using collagen I and III primary antibodies. Both collagen I and III immunohistochemical expressions were also significantly higher in fibroadenomas than in phyllodes tumours (p<0.001). In conclusion, label-free collagen quantitation on SHG microscopy is a novel imaging approach that can aid the differential diagnosis of fibroepithelial lesions.

Characteristics and behaviour of screen-detected ductal carcinoma in situ of the breast: comparison with symptomatic patients.

Breast cancer is the most common malignancy in Singapore women. Ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS) is the putative, non-obligate precursor of the majority of invasive breast cancers. The efficacy of the Singapore breast-screening pilot project in detecting early stage breast cancer led to the launch of a national breast-screening programme, BreastScreen Singapore (BSS), in January 2002. In this study, we compared clinicopathological and immunohistochemical characteristics, as well as clinical outcomes, between screen-detected and symptomatic DCIS. The study cohort comprised 1202 cases of DCIS diagnosed at Singapore General Hospital from 1994 to 2010. Comparison of clinicopathological parameters, immunohistochemical results of ER, PR, HER2, CK14, EGFR, and 34ßE12, and clinical outcomes was carried out between the 2 groups. Amongst 1202 cases, 610 (50.7%) were screen-detected and 592 (49.3%) were symptomatic DCIS. Screen-detected cases were smaller in size (P < 0.001), of lower nuclear grade (P = 0.004), and more frequently expressed ER (P < 0.001). Luminal A phenotype was more frequently observed in screen-detected DCIS, while triple-negative and HER2 phenotypes were more common in symptomatic DCIS (P < 0.001). The basal-like phenotype was also more frequent in symptomatic DCIS (P = 0.041). Mean and median follow-up was 99.7 and 97.8 months, respectively, with a maximum follow-up of 246.0 months. More symptomatic patients developed invasive recurrences compared to screen-detected patients (P = 0.001). A trend for better disease-free survival was observed in screen-detected patients (P = 0.076). Patients who were screen-detected experienced better overall survival than those with symptomatic DCIS (P = 0.007). Our data indicate a more favourable outcome of screen-detected DCIS patients confirming the role of BSS in early identification of this curable disease.

Prognostic significance of epithelial-mesenchymal transition proteins Twist and Foxc2 in phyllodes tumours of the breast.

Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), an important process during embryonic development, is reportedly exploited during tumour progression. Deregulation of EMT-related molecules has been shown in many malignancies, including breast carcinoma. We aim to investigate the clinical relevance and prognostic significance of EMT proteins, Twist and Foxc2, in breast phyllodes tumours (PTs). The study cohort comprised 271 PTs diagnosed from 2003 to 2010. Of these, 188 (69.4 %) were benign, 60 (22.1 %) borderline, and 23 (8.5 %) malignant. Immunohistochemistry for Twist and Foxc2 was performed on tissue microarray sections. Percentage of tumour cells stained was evaluated and correlated with clinicopathological parameters and clinical outcome. Twist and Foxc2 stromal nuclear expression was associated with tumour grade (P = 0.038 and 0.012). Foxc2 stromal nuclear expression was positively correlated with epithelial expression (P < 0.001), tumour relapse, and metastasis (P = 0.037). Furthermore, stromal nuclear immunoreactivity of Twist and Foxc2 was interrelated (P < 0.001). Tumours expressing Foxc2 and those co-expressing both Twist and Foxc2 revealed a shorter time to recurrence (P < 0.001 and 0.001) and death (P = 0.044 and 0.015). Twist and Foxc2 stromal expression in PTs was significantly correlated with tumour grade and worse histological features. In addition, expression of Foxc2 and co-expression of Twist and Foxc2 in the stroma of PTs contributed to poorer prognosis. Clinical relevance of EMT-related molecules may be worthy of further investigation in PTs.

CD117 expression in breast phyllodes tumors correlates with adverse pathologic parameters and reduced survival.

CD117 (c-kit) is a type III receptor tyrosine kinase encoded by the KIT gene. Deregulation of expression and mutations in the gene are implicated in various tumors. Reports of CD117 expression in phyllodes tumors have been controversial. We aim to investigate the protein expression of CD117 and mutations in the KIT gene in phyllodes tumors, and correlate the findings with pathological parameters and clinical outcome. A total of 272 cases were included in this study. CD117 expression was investigated by immunohistochemistry on tissue microarray sections. Toluidine blue staining was performed to indicate mast cells. Overall, 28 (10%) cases were CD117 positive. CD117 expression was significantly associated with tumor grade (P<0.001), increased stromal hypercellularity (P=0.003), stromal atypia (P=0.01), and stromal mitotic activity (P<0.001), permeative microscopic margins (P=0.002), and presence of hemorrhage (P=0.001). Expression was also associated with poorer overall survival (P=0.003). Nineteen cases were further selected for mutation screening through the Affymetrix OncoScan platform. No mutation of the KIT gene was found. Despite a lack of mutations in the KIT gene, CD117 protein expression is associated with unfavorable pathological parameters and poorer prognosis, suggesting an underlying role in the biology of phyllodes tumors.

Novel genetic aberrations in breast phyllodes tumours: comparison between prognostically distinct groups.

Phyllodes tumours of the breast are uncommon fibroepithelial neoplasms which pose management challenges due to difficulties in accurate prediction of clinical behaviour, as histological assessment has its limitations. Molecular studies have improved the understanding of these rare tumours but such findings are scant. We aimed to investigate genetic aberrations in phyllodes tumours stratified according to clinical behaviour, to identify potential genes contributing to disease progression. Twenty phyllodes tumours were separated into prognostically distinct categories depending on whether they had recurred/metastasized within the follow-up period. DNA extracted from FFPE materials was subjected to Affymetrix OncoScan™ FFPE Express molecular inversion probe microarray platform for analysis of copy number changes and mutational status. Results were cross validated with Sanger sequencing, FISH and immunohistochemistry. A higher number of chromosomal aberrations were observed in cases which recurred/metastasized, with median events of 19 compared to 3.5 in cases which did not recur/metastasize. High-level amplification and homozygous deletions were detected exclusively in the former group. Regions of high-level amplification included MDM4 (1q32.1), RAF1 (3p25), EGFR (7p12) and PDZD2 (5p13.3). EGFR amplification was confirmed on FISH and accompanied by intense EGFR immunostaining. Regions of homozygous deletion included CDKN2A (9p21) and MACROD2 (20p12.1). Homozygous deletion of 9p21 which involved CDKN2A was accompanied by loss of protein expression. No mutations were identified in all samples. These findings provide insights into identifying target genes and pathways exploited by phyllodes tumours, which would aid future development of individualised therapy.

Immunohistochemical expression of homeoproteins Six1 and Pax3 in breast phyllodes tumours correlates with histological grade and clinical outcome.

AIMS: Homeoproteins are transcription factors which critically regulate developmental processes. Deregulated expression of homeoproteins is observed in several malignancies, such as breast cancer and rhabdomyosarcoma, and contributes to malignant progression. We aimed to investigate the expression and prognostic importance of Six1 and Pax3 homeoproteins in phyllodes tumours - a group of uncommon biphasic tumours comprising both epithelial and stromal components. METHODS AND RESULTS: A total of 272 cases diagnosed from January 2003 to December 2010 were included in this study - 189 (69.5%) benign, 60 (22.1%) borderline and 23 (8.4%) malignant tumours. Immunohistochemistry was performed on tissue microarray sections using antibodies against Six1 and Pax3. Staining H-score was assessed in epithelium and stroma separately, and correlated with tumour grade, clinicopathological parameters and prognosis. Tumour grade was associated positively with stromal cytoplasmic expression (P < 0.001; P = 0.011) but correlated negatively with epithelial nuclear expression (P = 0.013; P = 0.007) of both Six1 and Pax3. High stromal cytoplasmic expression of Six1 was associated with metastasis (P = 0.044) and shorter time to recurrence (P = 0.056). Pax3 stromal cytoplasmic expression was associated with poorer overall survival (P = 0.033). CONCLUSIONS: Six1 and Pax3 expression is correlated with tumour grade, unfavourable clinicopathological parameters and poorer clinical outcome, suggesting that both proteins may play a role in malignant progression.

Keratin 15, transcobalamin I and homeobox gene Hox-B13 expression in breast phyllodes tumors: novel markers in biological classification.

Breast phyllodes tumors are rare neoplasms which present challenges for histological classification. Microscopic features are not always predictive of clinical behavior, and scarce data exist on the prognostic role of biological markers. Our study evaluated a series of 145 phyllodes tumors diagnosed at the Department of Pathology, Singapore General Hospital between 2006 and 2009, incorporating 91 (62.8%) benign, 40 (27.6%) borderline, and 14 (9.7%) malignant phyllodes tumors. Antibodies to keratin 15 (KRT15), transcobalamin I (TCN1), and homeobox gene Hox-B13 (HOXB13) were applied to sections cut from tissue microarray blocks. KRT15 and TCN1 positivity was defined when there was reactivity of 1% or more stromal cells, while HOXB13 positivity was defined using a H-score of 100 and above. Positive immunohistochemical expression for KRT15, TCN1, and HOXB13 was seen in 21 (14.5%), 96 (66.2%), and 66 (45.5%) of tumors, respectively. Stromal expression of KRT15, TCN1, and HOXB13 was significantly correlated with tumor grade (P < 0.001, P < 0.001, P = 0.012), stromal hypercellularity (P = 0.005, P < 0.001, P = 0.023), mitotic activity (P < 0.001), and microscopic borders (P = 0.006, P < 0.001, P = 0.011). Co-expression of TCN1 and HOXB13 was seen in 21 of 91 (23.1%) benign, 18 of 40 (45.0%) borderline, and 11 of 14 (78.6%) malignant tumors, suggesting that the dual-marker panels of TCN1 and HOXB13 might be helpful in classifying borderline and malignant tumors. Although expression of TCN1 alone was present in all malignant and 34 of 40 (85.0%) borderline tumors, a combined panel with HOXB13 excluded some benign cases and was a better discriminant for a significant proportion of borderline and malignant tumors.

Predicting clinical behaviour of breast phyllodes tumours: a nomogram based on histological criteria and surgical margins.

AIM: To define a predictive model for clinical behaviour of breast phyllodes tumours (PT) using histological parameters and surgical margin status. METHODS: Cases of breast PT diagnosed in the Department of Pathology Singapore General Hospital between January 1992 and December 2010 were stratified into benign, borderline and malignant grades based on a combination of histological parameters (stromal atypia, hypercellularity, mitoses, overgrowth and nature of tumour borders). Surgical margin status was assessed. Clinical follow-up and biostatistical modelling were accomplished. RESULTS: Of 605 PT, 440 (72.7%) were benign, 111 (18.4%) borderline and 54 (8.9%) malignant. Recurrences, which were predominantly local, were documented in 80 (13.2%) women. Deaths from PT occurred in 12 (2%) women. Multivariate analysis revealed stromal atypia, overgrowth and surgical margins to be independently predictive of clinical behaviour, with mitoses achieving near significance. Stromal hypercellularity and tumour borders were not independently useful. A nomogram developed based on atypia, mitoses, overgrowth and surgical margins (AMOS criteria) could predict recurrence-free survival at 1, 3, 5 and 10 years. This nomogram was superior to a total histological score derived from adding values assigned to each of five histological parameters. CONCLUSION: A predictive nomogram based on three histological criteria and surgical margin status can be used to calculate recurrence-free survival of an individual woman diagnosed with PT. This can be applied for patient counselling and clinical management.

Mutations in the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) gene in triple negative breast cancer: possible implications for targeted therapy.

INTRODUCTION: Triple negative breast cancer is associated with poorer prognosis and unresponsiveness to endocrine and anti-HER2 directed agents. Despite emerging data supporting the use of polyADP-ribose polymerase (PARP) inhibitors, complete and durable responses are rare and exploration of additional targeted therapies is needed. Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) is expressed in triple negative breast cancer and several clinical trials are testing the role of anti-EGFR directed therapy. However, the rate of EGFR mutations is poorly defined. We, therefore, sought to characterize EGFR mutations in triple negative breast cancers. METHODS: Seventy samples were randomly chosen from a cohort of 653 triple negative breast tumours for EGFR mutation analysis. These samples were immunostained for EGFR protein expression and consisted of negatively stained and positively stained cases. DNA was extracted from paraffin blocks and polymerase chain reaction was performed to amplify exon regions 18 to 21 of the EGFR gene. Direct sequencing of the purified PCR products was performed. RESULTS: EGFR mutations were found in 8 of 70 samples (11.4%). Mutations were predominantly exon 19 deletions (4 of 70 samples, 5.7%), which clustered in the region spanning codons 746 to 759 within the kinase domain of EGFR. Two types of exon 19 deletions were seen: a 15 nucleotide deletion (del E746-A750) (2 of 70 samples) and a 24 nucleotide deletion (del S752 - I759) (2 of 70 samples). Other exon 19 mutations observed were the inversion of the complementary strand (1 of 70 samples). Exon 21 mutations included missense substitution, L858R (1 of 70 samples) and T847I (2 of 70 samples). Mutations observed were independent of EGFR protein expression determined by immunohistochemical staining. CONCLUSIONS: This study is among the first to document the presence and estimate the prevalence of EGFR mutations in triple negative breast cancer. These findings have potential implications for the design of clinical trials involving anti-EGFR directed therapy which currently do not select for patients based on presence of activating EGFR mutations, which may hence be underpowered to detect significant benefit in unselected populations. More complete sampling of EGFR mutation status in triple negative breast cancer is needed to determine the true mutation rate.