Economic fluctuations and educational inequalities in premature ischemic heart disease mortality in Argentina / Variaciones económicas y desigualdades educativas en la mortalidad prematura por enfermedad isquémica en Argentina / Flutuações econômicas e desigualdades educacionais na mortalidade prematura por doença isquêmica na Argentina

Abstract: Although mortality from ischemic heart disease has declined over the past decades in Argentina, ischemic heart disease remains one of the most frequent causes of death. This study aimed to describe the role of individual and contextual factors on premature ischemic heart disease mortality and to analyze how educational differentials in premature ischemic heart disease mortality changed during economic fluctuations in two provinces of Argentina from 1990 to 2018. To test the relationship between individual (age, sex, and educational level) and contextual (urbanization, poverty, and macroeconomic variations) factors, a multilevel Poisson model was estimated. When controlling for the level of poverty at the departmental level, we observed inequalities in premature ischemic heart disease mortality according to the educational level of individuals, affecting population of low educational level. Moreover, economic expansion was related to an increase in ischemic heart disease mortality, however, expansion years were not associated with increasing educational inequalities in ischemic heart disease mortality. At the departmental level, we found no contextual association beween area-related socioeconomic level and the risk of ischemic heart disease mortality. Despite the continuing decline in ischemic heart disease mortality in Argentina, this study highlighted that social inequalities in mortality risk increased over time. Therefore, prevention policies should be more focused on populations of lower socioeconomic status in Argentina.

Resumen: Si bien la mortalidad por cardiopatía isquémica ha disminuido en las últimas décadas en Argentina, la cardiopatía isquémica sigue siendo una de las causas más frecuentes de muerte. Los objetivos de este estudio fueron describir el papel de los factores individuales y contextuales en la mortalidad prematura por cardiopatía isquémica y analizar cómo estos cambiaron las diferencias educativas en la mortalidad prematura por cardiopatía isquémica durante las variaciones económicas en dos provincias de Argentina durante el periodo 1990-2018. Para probar la relación entre los factores individuales (edad, género y nivel de educación) y contextuales (urbanización, pobreza y variaciones macroeconómicas), se estimó un modelo de Poisson multinivel. Controlando el nivel de pobreza en el ámbito departamental, se observaron desigualdades en la mortalidad prematura por cardiopatía isquémica según el nivel de educación de los individuos, lo que afecta a la población con bajo nivel de educación; la expansión económica se relacionó con el aumento de la mortalidad por cardiopatía isquémica; sin embargo, el periodo de expansión no estuvo asociado a aumentos de las desigualdades educativas en la mortalidad por cardiopatía isquémica. En el ámbito departamental no se detectó asociación entre el nivel socioeconómico de la área y el riesgo de mortalidad por cardiopatía isquémica. A pesar de la disminución continua de la mortalidad por cardiopatía isquémica en Argentina, este estudio destaca que las desigualdades sociales con relación al riesgo de mortalidad tuvieron un aumento con el tiempo. Por lo tanto, las políticas de prevención deberán dirigirse más a las poblaciones de menor nivel socioeconómico en Argentina.

Resumo: Embora a mortalidade por doença isquêmica do coração tenha diminuído nas últimas décadas na Argentina, a doença isquêmica do coração continua sendo uma das causas mais frequentes de morte. Os objetivos deste estudo foram descrever o papel de fatores individuais e contextuais na mortalidade prematura por doença isquêmica do coração e analisar como as diferenças educacionais na mortalidade prematura por doença isquêmica do coração mudaram durante as flutuações econômicas em duas províncias da Argentina durante o período 1990-2018. Para testar a relação entre fatores individuais (idade, sexo e escolaridade) e contextuais (urbanização, pobreza e variações macroeconômicas), estimou-se um modelo de Poisson multinível. Controlando o nível de pobreza no nível departamental, observaram-se desigualdades na mortalidade prematura por doença isquêmica do coração de acordo com o nível educacional dos indivíduos, afetando a população de baixa escolaridade; a expansão econômica esteve relacionada ao aumento da mortalidade por doença isquêmica do coração; no entanto, os anos de expansão não foram associados a aumentos nas desigualdades educacionais na mortalidade por doença isquêmica do coração. No nível departamental, não foi detectada uma associação contextual entre nível socioeconômico da área e risco de mortalidade por doença isquêmica do coração. Apesar do contínuo declínio da mortalidade por doença isquêmica do coração na Argentina, este estudo destaca que as desigualdades sociais em relação ao risco de mortalidade aumentaram ao longo do tempo. Portanto, as políticas de prevenção devem ser mais focadas nas populações de menor nível socioeconômico na Argentina.

Are Wealthier Times Healthier in Cities? Economic Fluctuations and Mortality in Urban Areas of Latin America.

Objective: To analyze the relationship between economic conditions and mortality in cities of Latin America. Methods: We analyzed data from 340 urban areas in ten countries: Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Mexico, Panama, Peru, and El Salvador. We used panel models adjusted for space-invariant and time-invariant factors to examine whether changes in area gross domestic product (GDP) per capita were associated with changes in mortality. Results: We find procyclical oscillations in mortality (i.e., higher mortality with higher GDP per capita) for total mortality, female population, populations of 0-9 and 45+ years, mortality due to cardiovascular diseases, malignant neoplasms, diabetes mellitus, respiratory infections and road traffic injuries. Homicides appear countercyclical, with higher levels at lower GDP per capita. Conclusions: Our results reveal large heterogeneity, but in our sample of cities, for specific population groups and causes of death, mortality oscillates procyclically, increasing when GDP per capita increases. In contrast we find few instances of countercyclical mortality.

Reversal of Upward Trends in Mortality During the Great Recession by Employment Status at Baseline in a National Longitudinal Study.

Because of the healthy worker effect, mortality rates increased in individuals who were employed and those who were unemployed, and decreased in those economically inactive at baseline in reported studies. To determine if such trends continue during economic recessions, we analyzed mortality rates in Spain before and during the Great Recession in these subgroups. We included 21,933,351 individuals who were employed, unemployed, or inactive in November 2001 and aged 30-64 years in each calendar-year of follow-up (2002-2011). Annual age-adjusted mortality rates were calculated in each group. The annual percentage change in mortality rates adjusted for age and educational level in employed and unemployed persons were also calculated for 2002-2007 and 2008-2011. In employed and unemployed men, mortality rates increased until 2007 and then declined, whereas in employed and unemployed women, mortality rates increased and then stabilized during 2008-2011. The mortality rate among inactive men and women decreased throughout the follow-up. In the employed and the unemployed, the annual percentage change was reversed during 2008-2011 compared with 2002-2007 (-1.2 vs. 3.2 in employed men; -0.3 vs. 4.1 in employed women; -0.8 vs. 2.9 in unemployed men; and -0.6 vs. 1.3 in unemployed women). The upward trends in mortality rates among individuals who were employed or unemployed in 2001 were reversed during the Great Recession (2008-2011).

Trends in disease mortality before and during the Great Recession in individuals employed in Spain in 2001.

BACKGROUND: Previous studies on economic recessions and mortality due to cancer and other chronic diseases have yielded inconsistent findings. We investigated the trend in all-disease mortality and mortality due to several specific diseases before and during the Great Recession of 2008 in individuals who were employed in 2001, at the beginning of follow-up. METHODS: We follow in a nationwide longitudinal study over 15 million subjects who had a job in Spain in 2001. The analysed outcomes were mortality at ages 25-64 years due to all diseases, cancer and other chronic diseases. We calculated annual mortality rates from 2003 to 2011, and the annual percentage change (APC) in mortality rates during 2003-07 and 2008-11, as well as the effect size, measured by the APC difference between the two periods. RESULTS: All-disease mortality increased from 2003 to 2007 in both men and women; then, between 2008 and 2011, all-disease mortality decreased in men and reached a plateau in women. In men, the APC in the all-disease mortality rate was 1.6 in 2003-07 and -1.4 in 2008-11 [effect size -3.0, 95% confidence interval (CI) -3.7 to -2.2]; in women it was 2.5 and -0.3 (effect size -2.8, 95% CI -4.2 to -1.3), respectively. Cancer mortality and mortality due to other chronic diseases revealed similar trends. CONCLUSIONS: In the group of individuals with a job in 2001 the Great Recession reversed or stabilized the upward trend in all-disease mortality.

Cardiovascular Risk Factors, Depression, and Alcohol Consumption During Joblessness and During Recessions Among Young Adults in CARDIA.

Research has shown that recessions are associated with lower cardiovascular mortality, but unemployed individuals have a higher risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) or death. We used data from 8 consecutive examinations (1985-2011) of the Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults (CARDIA) cohort, modeled in fixed-effect panel regressions, to investigate simultaneously the associations of CVD risk factors with the employment status of individuals and the macroeconomic conditions prevalent in the state where the individual lives. We found that unemployed individuals had lower levels of blood pressure, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and physical activity, and they had significantly higher depression scores, but they were similar to their counterparts in smoking status, alcohol consumption, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels, body mass index, and waist circumference. A 1-percentage-point higher unemployment rate at the state level was associated with lower systolic (-0.41 mm Hg, 95% CI: -0.65, -0.17) and diastolic (-0.19, 95% CI: -0.39, 0.01) blood pressure, higher physical activity levels, higher depressive symptom scores, lower waist circumference, and less smoking. We conclude that levels of CVD risk factors tend to improve during recessions, but mental health tends to deteriorate. Unemployed individuals are significantly more depressed, and they likely have lower levels of physical activity and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol.

La crisis y la salud en España y en Europa: ¿Está aumentando la mortalidad? / The economic crisis and health in Spain and Europe: Is mortality increasing?

En publicaciones recientes se ha sugerido que por efecto de la crisis económica la salud de la población se está deteriorando en Europa, lo que se manifestaría en aumentos de la mortalidad, particularmente en los países donde se están aplicando políticas de austeridad. Se ha sugerido también que, como consecuencia de esas políticas, los suicidios se han disparado y que la situación podría derivar en una catástrofe sanitaria como la que ocurrió en los antiguos países de la URSS durante los años noventa. Esas afirmaciones no tienen base en los datos disponibles. Las estadísticas indican que, en los países europeos en general y sobre todo en los más afectados por la crisis, las tasas de mortalidad general han disminuido y la salud de la población ha mejorado durante los años 2007-2010. Paradójicamente, la crisis ha tenido un efecto beneficioso para la salud en estos países. Esto supone una confirmación sustancial de investigaciones previas que han mostrado en diversos períodos y economías de mercado que las recesiones son favorables para la salud, mientras que los períodos de expansión económica son perjudiciales.

In recent publications it has been suggested that the health of the European population is deteriorating as a consequence of the economic crisis. Such deterioration would be manifested by an increase in mortality, particularly in those countries applying austerity measures. It has also been suggested that as a consequence of these policies, suicides have skyrocketed and the situation could become a public health catastrophe of the kind that occurred in the 1990s in the countries formerly part of the USSR. These affirmations have no basis in the existing data. Statistics indicate that in European countries in general and especially in those most affected by the crisis, general mortality has decreased and the health of the population has improved in 2007-2010. Paradoxically, the crisis has had a beneficial effect on health in these countries. Such findings are in substantial agreement with previous studies that have shown throughout various periods within market economies that recessions are favorable to health while periods of economic expansion are harmful.

Crecimiento económico e inequidades en salud / Economic growth and health inequities

En este artículo se discute la relación entre la inequidad en salud y el crecimiento económico. Se revisa el significado general de estos y otros conceptos relacionados (desarrollo económico, desigualdades en salud), se presentan algunos estudios que ilustran las diferentes hipótesis sobre la evolución histórica de la inequidad en salud y se analizan tres casos -EE. UU. en 1920-1940 y en años recientes, y Finlandia durante la expansión de los años 80 y la recesión de los 90- para mostrar la evolución de las inequidades en salud durante los periodos de expansión y recesión en economías de mercado sometidas al denominado ciclo económico. Las inequidades en salud entre grupos étnicos y entre clases sociales son frecuentes en sociedades modernas y algunas de estas inequidades parecen estar aumentando. Al parecer, los períodos de expansión económica no son favorables para la disminución de las inequidades en salud. Por el contrario, y en contra de lo que podría intuirse, los datos sugieren que es durante los períodos de recesión cuando tienden a reducir las inequidades en salud entre grupos privilegiados y desfavorecidos.

This essay reviews the relation between health inequities and economic growth. The general meaning of these and ancillary concepts (economic development, health inequalities) is briefly reviewed. Some studies illustrating different hypotheses on the long-run historical evolution of health inequalities are presented, and three case studies -the United States in 1920-1940 and in recent years, Finland during the expansion of the 1980s and the recession of the 1990s- are reviewed to demonstrate the evolution of health inequalities during the periods of expansion and recession in markets economies that conform to the so-called business cycle. Health inequities between ethnic groups and social classes are often found in modern societies, and some of these disparities seem to be widening. Periods of economic expansion do not seem favorable for the lessening of health inequalities. Contrarily, and counter-intuitively, evidence rather suggests that it is during periods of recession that gaps in health between privileged and disadvantaged groups tend to narrow.

Macroeconomic effects on mortality revealed by panel analysis with nonlinear trends.

Many investigations have used panel methods to study the relationships between fluctuations in economic activity and mortality. A broad consensus has emerged on the overall procyclical nature of mortality: perhaps counter-intuitively, mortality typically rises above its trend during expansions. This consensus has been tarnished by inconsistent reports on the specific age groups and mortality causes involved. We show that these inconsistencies result, in part, from the trend specifications used in previous panel models. Standard econometric panel analysis involves fitting regression models using ordinary least squares, employing standard errors which are robust to temporal autocorrelation. The model specifications include a fixed effect, and possibly a linear trend, for each time series in the panel. We propose alternative methodology based on nonlinear detrending. Applying our methodology on data for the 50 US states from 1980 to 2006, we obtain more precise and consistent results than previous studies. We find procyclical mortality in all age groups. We find clear procyclical mortality due to respiratory disease and traffic injuries. Predominantly procyclical cardiovascular disease mortality and countercyclical suicide are subject to substantial state-to-state variation. Neither cancer nor homicide have significant macroeconomic association.

Impact of energy intake, physical activity, and population-wide weight loss on cardiovascular disease and diabetes mortality in Cuba, 1980-2005.

Cuba's economic crisis of 1989-2000 resulted in reduced energy intake, increased physical activity, and sustained population-wide weight loss. The authors evaluated the possible association of these factors with mortality trends. Data on per capita daily energy intake, physical activity, weight loss, and smoking were systematically retrieved from national and local surveys. National vital statistics from 1980-2005 were used to assess trends in mortality from diabetes, coronary heart disease, stroke, cancer, and all causes. The crisis reduced per capita daily energy intake from 2,899 calories to 1,863 calories. During the crisis period, the proportion of physically active adults increased from 30% to 67%, and a 1.5-unit shift in the body mass index distribution was observed, along with a change in the distribution of body mass index categories. The prevalence of obesity declined from 14% to 7%, the prevalence of overweight increased 1%, and the prevalence of normal weight increased 4%. During 1997-2002, there were declines in deaths attributed to diabetes (51%), coronary heart disease (35%), stroke (20%), and all causes (18%). An outbreak of neuropathy and a modest increase in the all-cause death rate among the elderly were also observed. These results suggest that population-wide measures designed to reduce energy stores, without affecting nutritional sufficiency, may lead to declines in diabetes and cardiovascular disease prevalence and mortality.

Sobre progreso social y sostenibilidad: ¿existirá Buenos Aires cuando los jóvenes de hoy sean viejos? / On social progress and sustainability: will Buenos Aires exist when the young of today are old?

Se presentan y cuestionan los conceptos sobre sostenibilidad y progreso social de un artículo de Goñi y Goin publicado en Salud Colectiva, se dan alternativas a la visión de dichos autores, se analiza brevemente la relación entre crecimiento económico y progreso en condiciones de salud (medidas según la mortalidad de menores de cinco años) en la Argentina en los años 1960-2003, y se discuten informaciones recientes referentes a las previsiones científicas de efectos del cambio climático y ciertos conflictos políticos suscitados por esas previsiones...

Economía y mortalidad en las ciencias sociales: del Renacimiento a las ideas sobre la transición demográfica / Economy and mortality in the social sciences from the Renaissence to the ideas on the demographic transition

Se presenta el desarrollo histórico, desde el Renacimiento hasta el siglo XX, de las ideas generales sobre la influencia de la economía en la mortalidad. Muchas de esas ideas corresponden a las controversias maltusianas, especulativas hasta comienzos del siglo XX, cuando las estadísticas que mostraban la reducción de la mortalidad en muchos países dieron paso a la discusión de diversas teorías sobre la llamada transición demográfica. Se revisan sucesivamente las contribuciones de los fundadores de la medicina laboral o profesional, la aritmética política de Petty, las ideas sobrecrecimiento de la población y mortalidad de Malthus, las contribuciones demográficas y epidemiológicas de Engels y Marx, el movimiento de la medicina social y de los fundadores de la salud pública a finales del siglo XIX y las ideas modernas sobre la transición demográfica que tuvieron como foco las controversias sobre la tesis de McKeown. Se excluyen específicamentelas controversias del siglo XX sobre el efecto a corto plazo de las fluctuaciones económicas en las tasas de mortalidad...

Increasing mortality during the expansions of the US economy, 1900-1996.

BACKGROUND: In Western countries mortality dropped throughout the 20th century, but over and above the long-term falling trend, the death rate has oscillated over time. It has been postulated that these short-term oscillations may be related to changes in the economy. METHODS: To ascertain if these short-term oscillations are related to fluctuations in the economy, age-adjusted total mortality and mortality for specific population groups, ages and causes of death were transformed into rate of change or percentage deviation from trend, and were correlated and regressed on indicators of the US economy during the 20th century, transformed in the same way. RESULTS: Statistically and demographically significant results show that the decline of total mortality and mortality for different groups, ages and causes accelerated during recessions and was reduced or even reversed during periods of economic expansion-with the exception of suicides which increase during recessions. In recent decades these effects are stronger for women and non-whites. CONCLUSIONS: Economic expansions are associated with increasing mortality. Suggested pathways to explain this deceleration or even reversal of the secular decline in mortality during economic expansions include both material and psychosocial effects of the economic upturns: expansion of traffic and industrial activity directly raising injury-related mortality, decreased immunity levels (owing to rising stress and reduction of sleep time, social interaction and social support), and increased consumption of tobacco, alcohol and saturated fats.

Reducing automobile traffic: an urgent policy for health promotion / La reducción del tráfico de automóviles: una política urgente de promoción de la salud

In recent decades traffic injuries have become a leading cause of death and disability the world over. In congested urban areas, the noise and emissions from vehicle engines cause discomfort and disease. More than one billion people are exposed daily to harmful levels of atmospheric contamination. Because internal combustion generates carbon dioxide (CO2), the automobile is a principal contributor to the greenhouse effect, which has significantly raised the temperature of the atmosphere. Scientists anticipate that in coming decades the greenhouse effect will produce alterations in climate that are very likely to be harmful and possibly catastrophic. Meanwhile, burgeoning traffic and rural and urban highway infrastructures are already among the principal causes of environmental degradation. Urban development, because it is nearly always "planned" to accommodate automobiles rather than people, reduces the quality of life and tears the social fabric. In contrast to private automobiles, public transportation, bicycles, and walking produce little environmental contamination or injury-related morbidity and mortality. These modes of transport involve more physical activity, with its positive health effects, and avoid contributing to the greenhouse effect. The reduction of automobile traffic and substitution of alternative modes of transport are essential policies for health promotion. They should be incorporated in "healthy cities" programs and general economic policies

En las últimas décadas, las lesiones de tráfico se han convertido en una de las primeras causas de muerte y discapacidad en todo el mundo. En las zonas urbanas la congestión, el ruido y las emisiones de los motores de los vehículos causan molestias subjetivas y efectos patológicos detectables. Más de mil millones de personas están expuestas a niveles de contaminación atmosférica nocivos. Por su motor de combustión que genera dióxido de carbono (CO2), el automóvil es una de las fuentes principales de gases inductores del efecto invernadero. Este efecto ha generado ya un incremento de la temperatura media atmosférica y se estima que producirá en los próximos decenios alteraciones climáticas significativas de consecuencias inciertas, pero muy probablemente nocivas y posiblemente catastróficas. Independientemente del efecto invernadero, el crecimiento constante del parque automovilístico, del tráfico y de la infraestructura viaria urbana y rural es hoy una de las causas principales de la degradación del ambiente. El desarrollo urbano, casi siempre "planificado" en función del tráfico y no de las personas, hace que empeore significativamente la calidad de la vida, a la vez que fractura el tejido social. Frente al automóvil privado, el transporte público o en bicicleta y el desplazamiento a pie contribuyen a reducir la contaminación, la congestión y el volumen de tráfico, así como la morbilidad y mortalidad por lesiones y por enfermedades relacionadas con la contaminación. El transporte no automovilístico promueve también la actividad física ­con un efecto de mejora general de la salud­ y contribuye a aminorar el efecto invernadero. La reducción del volumen de tráfico y el impulso de métodos alternativos de transporte son así una política integral de promoción de la salud que ha de incorporarse en el movimiento de ciudades saludables, así como en las políticas de transporte y en la política económica en general.

La reducción del tráfico de automóviles: una política urgente de promoción de la salud

En las últimas décadas, las lesiones de tráfico se han convertido en una de las primeras causas de muerte y discapacidad en todo el mundo. En las zonas urbanas la congestión, el ruido y las emisiones de los motores de los vehículos causan molestias subjetivas y efectos patológicos detectables. Más de mil millones de personas están expuestas a niveles de contaminación atmosférica nocivos. Por su motor de combustión que genera dióxido de carbono (CO2), el automóvil es una de las fuentes principales de gases inductores del efecto invernadero. Este efecto ha generado ya un incremento de la temperatura media atmosférica y se estima que producirá en los próximos decenios alteraciones climáticas significativas de consecuencias inciertas, pero muy probablemente nocivas y posiblemente catastróficas. Independientemente del efecto invernadero, el crecimiento constante del parque automovilístico, del tráfico y de la infraestructura viaria urbana y rural es hoy una de las causas principales de la degradación del ambiente. El desarrollo urbano, casi siempre "planificado" en función del tráfico y no de las personas, hace que empeore significativamente la calidad de la vida, a la vez que fractura el tejido social. Frente al automóvil privado, el transporte público o en bicicleta y el desplazamiento a pie contribuyen a reducir la contaminación, la congestión y el volumen de tráfico, así como la morbilidad y mortalidad por lesiones y por enfermedades relacionadas con la contaminación. El transporte no automovilístico promueve también la actividad física - con un efecto de mejora general de la salud - y contribuye a aminorar el efecto invernadero. La reducción del volumen de tráfico y el impulso de métodos alternativos de transporte son así una política integral de promoción de la salud que ha de incorporarse en el movimiento de ciudades saludables, así como en las políticas de transporte y en la política económica en general

During the last few decades, traffic injuries have become one of the leading causes of death and disability in the world. In urban areas, traffic congestion, noise, and emissions from motor vehicles produce subjective disturbances and detectable pathological effects. More than one billion people are exposed to harmful levels of environmental pollution. Because its combustion engine generates carbon dioxide (CO2), the automobile is one of the chief sources of the gases that are causing the greenhouse effect. The latter has already caused a rise in the average ambient temperature, and over the next decades it will predictably cause significant climatic changes whose consequences, though uncertain, are likely to be harmful and possibly catastrophic. Aside from the greenhouse effect, the relentless growth of parking zones, traffic, and the roadway infrastructure in urban and rural areas is currently one of the leading causes of environmental degradation. Urban development, which is nearly always "planned" around traffic instead of people, leads to a significant deterioration in the quality of life, while it also destroys the social fabric. Unlike the private automobile, public transportation, bicycles, and walking help reduce pollution, congestion, and traffic volume, as well as the morbidity and mortality resulting from injuries and ailments related to pollution. Non-automobile transportation also encourages physical activity­with its positive effect on general health­and helps reduce the greenhouse effect. The drop in traffic volume and the increased use of alternate means of transportation are thus an integrated health promotion policy which should become an inherent part of the movement for the promotion of healthy cities and of transportation policies and economic policy in general