Isolation and functional diversity of Bowman-Birk type serine proteinase inhibitors from Hyacinthus orientalis.

Bowman-Birk inhibitors (BBIs) are plant-derived serine proteinase inhibitors. Endogenously, they function as defense molecules against pathogens and insects, but they also have been explored for applications in cancer treatment and inflammatory disorders. Here, we isolated 15 novel BBIs from the bulb of Hyacinthus orientalis (termed HOSPIs). These isoinhibitors consisted of two or three chains, respectively, that are linked by disulfides bonds based on proposed cleavage sites in the canonical BBI reactive site loop. They strongly inhibited trypsin (Ki = 0.22-167 nM) and α-chymotrypsin (Ki = 19-1200 nM). Notably, HOSPI-B4 contains a six-residue reactive loop, which appears to be the smallest such motif discovered in BBIs to date. HOSPI-A6 and -A7 contain an unusual reactive site, i.e. Leu-Met at the P1-P1' position and have strong inhibitory activity against trypsin, α-chymotrypsin, and elastase. Analysis of the cDNA encoding HOSPIs revealed that the precursors have HOSPI-like domains repeated at least twice with a defined linker sequence connecting individual domains. Lastly, mutational analysis of HOSPIs suggested that the linker sequence does not affect the inhibitory activity, and a Thr residue at the P2 site and a Pro at the P3' site are crucial for elastase inhibition. Using mammalian proteases as representative model system, we gain novel insight into the sequence diversity and proteolytic activity of plant BBI. These results may aid the rational design of BBI peptides with potent and distinct inhibitory activity against human, pathogen, or insect serine proteinases.

Crystal structure of the complex between venom toxin and serum inhibitor from Viperidae snake.

Venomous snakes have endogenous proteins that neutralize the toxicity of their venom components. We previously identified five small serum proteins (SSP-1-SSP-5) from a highly venomous snake belonging to the family Viperidae as inhibitors of various toxins from snake venom. The endogenous inhibitors belong to the prostate secretory protein of 94 amino acids (PSP94) family. SSP-2 interacts with triflin, which is a member of the cysteine-rich secretory protein (CRISP) family that blocks smooth muscle contraction. However, the structural basis for the interaction and the biological roles of these inhibitors are largely unknown. Here, we determined the crystal structure of the SSP-2-triflin complex at 2.3 Å resolution. A concave region centrally located in the N-terminal domain of triflin is fully occupied by the terminal ß-strands of SSP-2. SSP-2 does not bind tightly to the C-terminal cysteine-rich domain of triflin; this domain is thought to be responsible for its channel-blocker function. Instead, the cysteine-rich domain is tilted 7.7° upon binding to SSP-2, and the inhibitor appears to sterically hinder triflin binding to calcium channels. These results help explain how an endogenous inhibitor prevents the venomous protein from maintaining homeostasis in the host. Furthermore, this interaction also sheds light on the binding interface between the human homologues PSP94 and CRISP-3, which are up-regulated in prostate and ovarian cancers.

Snake fetuin: isolation and structural analysis of new fetuin family proteins from the sera of venomous snakes.

Novel proteins were isolated from the sera of Chinese Mamushi (Gloydius blomhoffi brevicaudus) and Habu (Trimeresurus flavoviridis). The primary structures of these proteins were determined by protein sequencing, and the nucleotide sequences were established by cDNA cloning from the liver mRNAs. They belonged to the fetuin family having a double-headed cystatin-like domain and a His-rich domain, akin to HSF, an antihemorrhagic factor isolated from Habu serum. They showed no antihemorrhagic activity and were designated HSF-like proteins (HLPs). Mamushi serum contained two different HLPs termed HLP-A and HLP-B. Both HLP-A and Habu HLP had a unique 17-residue deletion in their His-rich domains. HLP-B comprised two glycosylated polypeptide chains and inhibited the precipitation of calcium phosphate as potently as does bovine fetuin. HLP-B was hence identified as a snake fetuin. The phylogenetic analysis of the fetuin family of proteins showed that antihemorrhagins and HLPs have evolved from this snake fetuin.

Activation of the intrinsic and extrinsic pathways in high pressure-induced apoptosis of murine erythroleukemia cells.

We previously demonstrated that caspase-3, an executioner of apoptosis, is activated in the pressure-induced apoptosis of murine erythroleukemia (MEL) cells (at 100 MPa). Here, we examined the pathway of caspase-3 activation using peptide substrates and caspase inhibitors. Using the substrates of caspases-8 and -9, it was found that both are activated in cells under high pressure. The production of nuclei with sub-G1 DNA content in 100 MPa-treated MEL cells was suppressed by inhibitors of caspases-8 and -9, and pan-caspase. In 100 MPa-treated cells, pan-caspase inhibitor partially prevented the cytochrome c release from the mitochondria and the breakdown of mitochondrial membrane potential. These results suggest that the intrinsic and extrinsic pathways are activated in apoptotic signaling during the high pressure-induced death of MEL cells.

Active fragments of the antihemorrhagic protein HSF from serum of habu (Trimeresurus flavoviridis).

Certain snakes have antihemorrhagic proteins in their sera. Habu serum factor (HSF), an antihemorrhagic protein isolated from the serum of the Japanese habu snake (Trimeresurus flavoviridis) is composed of two cystatin-like domains (D1 and D2) and a His-rich domain, and it inhibits several snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMPs). The activity of HSF can be abolished by trinitrophenylation of Lys residues with 2,4,6-trinitrobenzene sulphonic acid. Upon complex formation of HSF with SVMP, however, the loss of its inhibitory activity by the chemical modification was suppressed, and Lys(15), Lys(41), and Lys(103) residues in HSF were not trinitrophenylated. In order to identify the domain that is critical to the inhibitory activity on SVMPs, native HSF was digested with papain followed by cleavage with cyanogen bromide, yielding a low-molecular mass fragment that was composed of two peptide chains (residues 5-89 and 312-317) linked by a disulfide bond. This fragment inhibited several SVMPs and showed significant antihemorrhagic activity. This indicates that the N-terminal half of D1 is indispensable for the antihemorrhagic activity of HSF. Furthermore, a three-dimensional model of two cystatin-like domains constructed by the homology modeling has indicated that three Lys residues (15, 41, and 103) are exposed to the same surface of HSF molecule.

Primary structure of brevilysin L4, an enzymatically active fragment of a disintegrin precursor from Gloydius halys brevicaudus venom.

Brevilysin L4 (L4) is a non-hemorrhagic P-I class metalloprotease (MP) isolated from Gloydius halys brevicaudus venom. Its complete amino acid sequence has been determined. L4 is a single-chain polypeptide and highly homologous to those of other snake venom MPs. A zinc-binding motif, HExxHxxGxxH, is located at residues 142-152. A characteristic feature of L4 is the presence of a spacer sequence (LRTDTVS) at the C-terminal that links metalloprotease and disintegrin domains and is usually removed by post-translational proteolysis, suggesting that L4 is expressed together with a spacer region and a disintegrin domain at the C-terminal. The nucleotide sequence of a cDNA clone encoding L4 has revealed that L4 is a disintegrin precursor and produced as a P-II class MP. The disintegrin coded after L4 sequence was brevicaudin 1, a disintegrin previously isolated from the same venom. P-II class MPs have been suspected to undergo autoproteolysis to release disintegrins. Although being P-I class MP, L4 itself autocatalytically degrades with a half-life of 30min at pH 8.5 and 37 degrees C in the absence of Ca(2+). Sequence analysis of several fragment peptides produced during the autolysis of L4 indicated that more than 40 peptide bonds were split, and the cleavages of Ser(60)-Asn(61), Thr(99)-Ala(100), and Phe(103)-Asp(104) bonds may trigger the autoproteolysis. Addition of Ca(2+) completely suppressed the cleavage of these particular bonds, resulting in a marked prevention of autoproteolysis. Thus, L4 provides a good model for the investigation of autolysis of some MPs.

DNA replication reaction in Xenopus cell-free system is suppressed by high pressure.

Previously, we demonstrated that when mouse erythroleukemia cells are exposed to a pressure of 80 MPa, the cell-cycle progression of S-phase cells is retarded. To examine the effects of high pressure on DNA replication, we used a Xenopus cell-free system. From cell-cycle progression of sperm nuclei, it was found that sperm nuclei are stable to a pressure of 80 MPa, whereas egg extracts are susceptible to high pressure. Similarly, biotin-16-dUTP was incorporated into 80 MPa-treated sperm nuclei in pressure-untreated extracts, but not into naive sperm nuclei in 80 MPa-treated extracts. These results indicate that DNA replication in Xenopus cell-free system is suppressed by the susceptibility of the extracts to a pressure of 80 MPa.