Gene expression profiles of inflammatory breast cancer: correlation with response to neoadjuvant chemotherapy and metastasis-free survival.

BACKGROUND: Inflammatory breast cancer (IBC) is an aggressive disease. To date, no molecular feature reliably predicts either the response to chemotherapy (CT) or the survival. Using DNA microarrays, we searched for multigene predictors. PATIENTS AND METHODS: The World IBC Consortium generated whole-genome expression profiles of 137 IBC and 252 non-IBC (nIBC) samples. We searched for transcriptional profiles associated with pathological complete response (pCR) to neoadjuvant anthracycline-based CT and distant metastasis-free survival (DMFS) in respective subsets of 87 and 106 informative IBC samples. Correlations were investigated with predictive and prognostic gene expression signatures published in nIBC (nIBC-GES). Supervised analyses tested genes and activation signatures of 19 biological pathways and 234 transcription factors. RESULTS: Three of five tested prognostic nIBC-GES and the two tested predictive nIBC-GES discriminated between IBC with and without pCR, as well as two interferon activation signatures. We identified a 107-gene signature enriched for immunity-related genes that distinguished between responders and nonresponders in IBC. Its robustness was demonstrated by external validation in three independent sets including two IBC sets and one nIBC set, with independent significant predictive value in IBC and nIBC validation sets in multivariate analysis. We found no robust signature associated with DMFS in patients with IBC, and neither of the tested prognostic GES, nor the molecular subtypes were informative, whereas they were in our nIBC series (220 stage I-III informative samples). CONCLUSION: Despite the relatively small sample size, we show that response to neoadjuvant CT in IBC is, as in nIBC, associated with immunity-related processes, suggesting that similar mechanisms responsible for pCR exist. Analysis of a larger IBC series is warranted regarding the correlation of gene expression profiles and DMFS.

Detection and prognostic significance of circulating tumour cells in patients with metastatic breast cancer according to immunohistochemical subtypes.

BACKGROUND: The enumeration of circulating tumour cells (CTCs) with the EpCAM-based CellSearch system has prognostic significance in patients with metastatic breast cancer (MBC). The aim of this study was to explore potential differences in the detection and prognostic significance of CTCs in MBC according to immunohistochemical subtypes of breast cancer. METHODS: CellSearch CTC counts were obtained from 154 MBC patients before first-line systemic treatment between November 2007 and August 2012. Patients were categorised in five subgroups according to immunohistochemical surrogate definitions of intrinsic subtypes in breast cancer based on hormone receptor status, HER2/neu status and histological grade. Differences in progression-free (PFS) and overall survival (OS) were assessed relative to the cut-off value of ≥5 CTCs per 7.5 ml blood. RESULTS: No significant differences were observed in the absolute CTC counts (P=0.120) or in CTC positivity rates according to ≥1 and ≥5 CTCs per 7.5 ml blood detection thresholds (P=0.165 and P=0.651, respectively) between immunohistochemical subtypes. However, very high CTC counts, defined as ≥80 CTCs per 7.5 ml, were observed more frequently in patients with Luminal A and triple negative (TN) breast cancer (P=0.024). In the total study population, the presence of ≥5 CTCs was the single most significant prognostic factor for both PFS and OS in multivariate analysis (P<0.001). A more limited prognostic impact, not reaching statistical significance, was observed in patients with HER2-positive disease as opposed to patients with Luminal A, Luminal B-HER2-negative and TN disease. CONCLUSION: The detection of EpCAM+CTCs was not clearly associated with any of the immunohistochemical subtypes of breast cancer in patients with MBC before first-line treatment. Potentially clinically relevant differences were however observed at very high CTC counts. Furthermore, our data suggest a lower prognostic significance of CTC evaluation in HER2-positive patients with MBC.

Semiautomated isolation and molecular characterisation of single or highly purified tumour cells from CellSearch enriched blood samples using dielectrophoretic cell sorting.

BACKGROUND: Molecular characterisation of single circulating tumour cells (CTCs) holds considerable promise for predictive biomarker assessment and to explore CTC heterogeneity. We evaluate a new method, the DEPArray system, that allows the dielectrophoretic manipulation and isolation of single and 100% purified groups of CTCs from pre-enriched blood samples and explore the feasibility of their molecular characterisation. METHODS: Samples containing known numbers of two cell populations were used to assess cell loss during sample loading. Cultured breast cancer cells were isolated from spiked blood samples using CellSearch CTC and Profile kits. Single tumour cells and groups of up to 10 tumour cells were recovered with the DEPArray system and subjected to transcriptional and mutation analysis. RESULTS: On average, 40% cell loss was observed when loading samples to the DEPArray system. Expected mutations in clinically relevant markers could be obtained for 60% of single recovered tumour cells and all groups of tumour cells. Reliable gene expression profiles were obtained from single cells and groups of up to 10 cells for 2 out of 3 spiked breast cancer cell lines. CONCLUSION: We describe a semiautomated workflow for the isolation of small groups of 1 to 10 tumour cells from whole blood samples and provide proof of principle for the feasibility of their comprehensive molecular characterisation.

A phase II study of the combination of endocrine treatment and bortezomib in patients with endocrine-resistant metastatic breast cancer.

The majority of patients with hormone receptor-positive metastatic breast cancer die from disease progression despite different types of anti-hormonal treatments. Preclinical studies have indicated that resistance to anti-hormonal therapies may be the result of an activated NF-κB signalling pathway in breast cancer. Bortezomib is a proteasome inhibitor that blocks the NF-κB pathway. Recent pharmacodynamic and pharmaco-kinetic xenograft studies have shown that drug exposure may be a crucial factor for the efficacy of bortezomib in solid tumours. The aim was to investigate whether the addition of bortezomib to anti-hormonal therapy would result in regained antitumour activity in patients with progressive and measurable disease being treated with an endocrine agent. Clinical benefit was defined as patients obtaining stable disease, partial response or complete response after 2 cycles, lasting for at least another five weeks. Bortezomib was administered on days 1, 8, 15 and 22 of a 5-week regimen (1.6 mg/m2). Eight patients received an aromatase inhibitor and bortezomib, while one received tamoxifen and bortezomib. There were 3 grade 3 gastrointestinal toxicities. Median time to treatment failure was 69 days (range, 35-140). Two out of the 9 patients had stable disease for more than 10 weeks. Despite an effective target inhibition, suggested in peripheral blood mononuclear cells and available tumour samples, no objective antitumour responses were observed. Addition of a proteasome inhibitor to anti-hormonal therapy resulted in a clinical benefit rate of 22% in a limited number of patients with endocrine resistant and progressive metastatic breast cancer. The demonstrated proteasome inhibition in tumour tissue provides evidence that the lack of clinical responses is not attributed to deficient drug exposure.

VEGF-A-independent and angiogenesis-dependent tumour growth in patients with metastatic breast cancer.

BACKGROUND The mechanisms of tumour progression during anti-VEGF-A treatment are poorly understood. PATIENTS AND MATERIALS Two patients with metastatic breast cancer are described who developed new metastases while receiving anti-VEGF-A treatment. Angiogenic parameters were determined by CD34/Ki67 double staining, Chalkley counts (CC) and endothelial cell proliferation fractions (ECP). RT-PCR Taqman low-density arrays with a gene panel of 94 angiogenesis-related genes were performed on both metastases and compared to 10 unselected primary breast tumours. RESULTS Both lesions showed a high and intermediate CC of, respectively, 7.5±0.62 and 4.8±0.2. Both lesions had elevated ECP values of 14% and 8%. Low-density array screening showed that VEGFR1 mRNA was overexpressed in both samples (z-score=7.85 and 7.81) compared to control samples (out of range [min-max]). Additional analysis confirmed this finding at the protein level by immunohistochemistry. CONCLUSION These observations suggest that tumour progression under continuous anti-VEGF-A continues to be angiogenesis dependent. Further exploration is needed to identify the mechanisms of anti-VEGF-A resistance in order to design combination-targeted therapies.

Circulating tumour cells in the central and the peripheral venous compartment in patients with metastatic breast cancer.

BACKGROUND: The enumeration of circulating tumour cells (CTC) has prognostic significance in patients with metastatic breast cancer (MBC) and monitoring of CTC levels over time has considerable potential to guide treatment decisions. However, little is known on CTC kinetics in the human bloodstream. METHODS: In this study, we compared the number of CTC in both 7.5 ml central venous blood (CVB) and 7.5 ml peripheral venous blood (PVB) from 30 patients with MBC starting with a new line of chemotherapy. RESULTS: The number of CTC was found to be significantly higher in CVB (median: 43.5; range: 0-4036) than in PVB (median: 33; range: 0-4013) (P=0.001). When analysing samples pairwise, CTC counts were found to be significantly higher in CVB than in PVB in 12 out of 26 patients with detectable CTC. In contrast, only 2 out of 26 patients had higher CTC counts in PVB as compared with CVB, whereas in 12 remaining patients no significant difference was seen. The pattern of CTC distribution was independent of the sites of metastatic involvement. CONCLUSION: A substantial difference in the number of CTC was observed between CVB and PVB of patients with MBC. Registration of the site of blood collection is warranted in studies evaluating the role of CTC assessment in these patients.

Integrated miRNA and mRNA expression profiling of the inflammatory breast cancer subtype.

BACKGROUND: MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are key regulators of gene expression. In this study, we explored whether altered miRNA expression has a prominent role in defining the inflammatory breast cancer (IBC) phenotype. METHODS: We used quantitative PCR technology to evaluate the expression of 384 miRNAs in 20 IBC and 50 non-IBC samples. To gain understanding on the biological functions deregulated by aberrant miRNA expression, we looked for direct miRNA targets by performing pair-wise correlation coefficient analysis on expression levels of 10 962 messenger RNAs (mRNAs) and by comparing these results with predicted miRNA targets from TargetScan5.1. RESULTS: We identified 13 miRNAs for which expression levels were able to correctly predict the nature of the sample analysed (IBC vs non-IBC). For these miRNAs, we detected a total of 17,295 correlated miRNA-mRNA pairs, of which 7012 and 10 283 pairs showed negative and positive correlations, respectively. For four miRNAs (miR-29a, miR-30b, miR-342-3p and miR-520a-5p), correlated genes were concordant with predicted targets. A gene set enrichment analysis on these genes demonstrated significant enrichment in biological processes related to cell proliferation and signal transduction. CONCLUSIONS: This study represents, to the best of our knowledge, the first integrated analysis of miRNA and mRNA expression in IBC. We identified a set of 13 miRNAs of which expression differed between IBC and non-IBC, making these miRNAs candidate markers for the IBC subtype.

Circulating tumour cell detection: a direct comparison between the CellSearch System, the AdnaTest and CK-19/mammaglobin RT-PCR in patients with metastatic breast cancer.

BACKGROUND: The detection, enumeration and isolation of circulating tumour cells (CTCs) have considerable potential to influence the clinical management of patients with breast cancer. There is, however, substantial variability in the rates of positive samples using existing detection techniques. The lack of standardisation of technology hampers the implementation of CTC measurement in clinical routine practice. METHODS: This study was designed to directly compare three techniques for detecting CTCs in blood samples taken from 76 patients with metastatic breast cancer (MBC) and from 20 healthy controls: the CellSearch CTC System, the AdnaTest Breast Cancer Select/Detect and a previously developed real-time qRT-PCR assay for the detection of CK-19 and mammaglobin transcripts. RESULTS: As a result, 36% of patients with MBC were positive by the CellSearch System, 22% by the AdnaTest, 26% using RT-PCR for CK-19 and 54% using RT-PCR for mammaglobin. Samples were significantly more likely to be positive for at least one mRNA marker using RT-PCR than using the CellSearch System (P=0.001) or the AdnaTest (P<0.001). CONCLUSION: We observed a substantial variation in the detection rates of CTCs in blood from breast cancer patients using three different techniques. A higher rate of positive samples was observed using a combined qRT-PCR approach for CK-19 and mammaglobin, which suggests that this is currently the most sensitive technique for detecting CTCs.

The presence of circulating total DNA and methylated genes is associated with circulating tumour cells in blood from breast cancer patients.

Circulating tumour cells (CTC) and tumour-related methylated DNA in blood have been separately assessed for their utility as a marker for subclinical metastasis in breast cancer. However, no studies have looked into the relation between the both molecular markers in this type of cancer. In this study, we investigated the correlations between total/methylated DNA and CTC in the blood from metastatic breast cancer patients. We simultaneously obtained whole blood, plasma and serum samples from 80 patients and 20 controls. The CellSearch System was used to enumerate CTC in blood samples. Plasma total DNA levels were determined by a QPCR method. Sera were analysed by methylation-specific QPCR for three markers: adenomatous polyposis coli (APC), ras association domain family protein 1A (RASSF1A) and oestrogen receptor 1 (ESR1). Total DNA levels in patients were significantly increased when compared with controls (P<0.001) and correlated with the number of CTC (r=0.418, P<0.001). Hypermethylation of one or more genes was detected in 42 (53%) serum samples from breast cancer patients and in three (16%) serum samples from controls (P=0.003). APC was hypermethylated in 29%, RASSF1A in 35% and ESR1 in 20% of breast cancer cases. Detection of a methylated gene in serum was associated with the detection of CTC in blood (P=0.03). The detection of large amounts of circulating total/methylated DNA correlated with the presence of CTC in the blood from patients with breast cancer. This can be interpreted in two ways: (a) CTC are a potential source of circulating tumour-specific DNA; (b) high numbers of CTC and circulating methylated DNA are both a phenotypic feature of more aggressive tumour biology.

The VEGF pathway and the AKT/mTOR/p70S6K1 signalling pathway in human epithelial ovarian cancer.

Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-A inhibitors exhibit unseen high responses and toxicity in recurrent epithelial ovarian cancer suggesting an important role for the VEGF/VEGFR pathway. We studied the correlation of VEGF signalling and AKT/mTOR signalling. Using a tissue microarray of clinical samples (N=86), tumour cell immunohistochemical staining of AKT/mTOR downstream targets, pS6 and p4E-BP1, together with tumour cell staining of VEGF-A and pVEGFR2 were semi-quantified. A correlation was found between the marker for VEGFR2 activation (pVEGFR2) and a downstream target of AKT/mTOR signalling (pS6) (R=0.29; P=0.002). Additional gene expression analysis in an independent cDNA microarray dataset (N=24) showed a negative correlation (R=-0.73, P<0.0001) between the RPS6 and the VEGFR2 gene, which is consistent as the gene expression and phosphorylation of S6 is inversely regulated. An activated tumour cell VEGFR2/AKT/mTOR pathway was associated with increased incidence of ascites (chi(2), P=0.002) and reduced overall survival of cisplatin-taxane-based patients with serous histology (N=32, log-rank test, P=0.04). These data propose that VEGF-A signalling acts on tumour cells as a stimulator of the AKT/mTOR pathway. Although VEGF-A inhibitors are classified as anti-angiogenic drugs, these data suggest that the working mechanism has an important additional modality of targeting the tumour cells directly.

Aberrant methylation of the Adenomatous Polyposis Coli (APC) gene promoter is associated with the inflammatory breast cancer phenotype.

Aberrant methylation of the adenomatous polyposis coli (APC) gene promoter occurs in about 40% of breast tumours and has been correlated with reduced APC protein levels. To what extent epigenetic alterations of the APC gene may differ according to specific breast cancer phenotypes, remains to be elucidated. Our aim was to explore the role of APC methylation in the inflammatory breast cancer (IBC) phenotype. The status of APC gene promoter hypermethylation was investigated in DNA from normal breast tissues, IBC and non-IBC by both conventional and real-time quantitative methylation-specific PCR (MSP). APC methylation levels were compared with APC mRNA and protein levels. Hypermethylation of the APC gene promoter was present in 71% of IBC samples (n=21) and 43% of non-IBC samples (n=30) by conventional MSP (P=0.047). The APC gene also showed an increased frequency of high methylation levels in IBC (in 74% of cases, n=19) vs non-IBC (in 46% of cases, n=35) using a qMSP assay (P=0.048). We observed no significant association between APC methylation levels by qMSP and APC mRNA or protein expression levels. In conclusion, for the first time, we report the association of aberrant methylation of the APC gene promoter with the IBC phenotype, which might be of biological and clinical importance.

Comparison of molecular determinants of angiogenesis and lymphangiogenesis in lymph node metastases and in primary tumours of patients with breast cancer.

Angiogenesis and lymphangiogenesis are complex processes, driven by multiple factors. In primary breast tumours (PTs), VEGFA, -C and -D are the most important (lymph)angiogenic factors. The induction of lymphangiogenesis in axillary lymph node (LN) metastases of patients with breast cancer was described recently. To compare the molecular determinants of (lymph)angiogenesis in LN metastases and PTs of breast cancer patients, RNA was isolated from formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded tissue sections of a metastatically involved and uninvolved LN and the PT from 26 lymph node-positive patients. The expression of 12 (lymph)angiogenic markers was measured by qRT-PCR. Expression was correlated with tumour cell proliferation, angiogenesis and lymphangiogenesis, quantified by tumour cell proliferation fraction (TCP%) and (lymphatic) endothelial cell proliferation fraction [(L)ECP%]. TCP%, ECP% and LECP% were assessed on immunohistochemical double stains for CD34/Ki-67 and D2-40/Ki-67, respectively. In involved LNs, the relative gene expression levels of PROX1 (p < 0.001) and FGF2 (p = 0.008) were decreased and the expression levels of VEGFA (p = 0.01) and PDGFB (p = 0.002) were increased compared to uninvolved LNs. The expression of most markers was increased in PTs compared to involved LNs. In metastatically involved LNs, the expression of VEGFA correlated with ECP% (r = 0.54, p = 0.009) and LECP% (r = 0.76, p < 0.001). In PTs, VEGFA correlated only with ECP% (r = 0.74, p < 0.001). VEGFD correlated with peritumoural LECP% (r = 0.61, p = 0.001) and with VEGFC (r = 0.78, p < 0.001). Linear regression analysis confirmed the expression of VEGFA as an independent predictor of ECP% in both PTs and LN metastases and of LECP% in LN metastases. The expression of VEGFD, but not of VEGFA, independently predicted peritumoural LECP% in PTs. Our results confirm existing data that, in PTs, angiogenesis and lymphangiogenesis are respectively driven by VEGFA and VEGFD. In contrast, in LN metastases, both processes seem to be driven by VEGFA. Lymphangiogenesis in PTs and in LN metastases might thus be driven by different factors.

NF-kappaB activation in inflammatory breast cancer is associated with oestrogen receptor downregulation, secondary to EGFR and/or ErbB2 overexpression and MAPK hyperactivation.

Activation of NF-kappaB in inflammatory breast cancer (IBC) is associated with loss of estrogen receptor (ER) expression, indicating a potential crosstalk between NF-kappaB and ER. In this study, we examined the activation of NF-kappaB in IBC and non-IBC with respect to ER and EGFR and/or ErbB2 expression and MAPK hyperactivation. A qRT-PCR based ER signature was evaluated in tumours with and without transcriptionally active NF-kappaB, as well as correlated with the expression of eight NF-kappaB target genes. Using a combined ER/NF-kappaB signature, hierarchical clustering was executed. Hyperactivation of MAPK was investigated using a recently described MAPK signature (Creighton et al, 2006), and was linked to tumour phenotype, ER and EGFR and/or ErbB2 overexpression. The expression of most ER-modulated genes was significantly elevated in breast tumours without transcriptionally active NF-kappaB. In addition, the expression of most ER-modulated genes was significantly anticorrelated with the expression of most NF-kappaB target genes, indicating an inverse correlation between ER and NF-kappaB activation. Clustering using the combined ER and NF-kappaB signature revealed one cluster mainly characterised by low NF-kappaB target gene expression and a second one with elevated NF-kappaB target gene expression. The first cluster was mainly characterised by non-IBC specimens and IHC ER+ breast tumours (13 out of 18 and 15 out of 18 respectively), whereas the second cluster was mainly characterised by IBC specimens and IHC ER- breast tumours (12 out of 19 and 15 out of 19 respectively) (Pearson chi(2), P<0.0001 and P<0.0001 respectively). Hyperactivation of MAPK was associated with both ER status and tumour phenotype by unsupervised hierarchical clustering using the MAPK signature and was significantly reflected by overexpression of EGFR and/or ErbB2. NF-kappaB activation is linked to loss of ER expression and activation in IBC and in breast cancer in general. The inverse correlation between NF-kappaB activation and ER activation is due to EGFR and/or ErbB2 overexpression, resulting in NF-kappaB activation and ER downregulation.

High-grade clear cell renal cell carcinoma has a higher angiogenic activity than low-grade renal cell carcinoma based on histomorphological quantification and qRT-PCR mRNA expression profile.

Clear cell renal cell carcinoma (CC-RCC) is a highly vascularised tumour and is therefore an attractive disease to study angiogenesis and to test novel angiogenesis inhibitors in early clinical development. Endothelial cell proliferation plays a pivotal role in the process of angiogenesis. The aim of this study was to compare angiogenesis parameters in low nuclear grade (n=87) vs high nuclear grade CC-RCC (n=63). A panel of antibodies was used for immunohistochemistry: CD34/Ki-67, carbonic anhydrase IX, hypoxia-inducible factor-1alpha (HIF-1alpha) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). Vessel density (MVD - microvessel density), endothelial cell proliferation fraction (ECP%) and tumour cell proliferation fraction (TCP%) were assessed. mRNA expression levels of angiogenesis stimulators and inhibitors were determined by quantitative RT-PCR. High-grade CC-RCC showed a higher ECP% (P=0.049), a higher TCP% (P=0.009), a higher VEGF protein expression (P<0.001), a lower MVD (P< 0.001) and a lower HIF-1alpha protein expression (P=0.002) than low-grade CC-RCC. Growth factor mRNA expression analyses revealed a higher expression of angiopoietin 2 in low-grade CC-RCC. Microvessel density and ECP% were inversely correlated (Rho=-0.26, P=0.001). Because of the imperfect association of nuclear grade and ECP% or MVD, CC-RCC was also grouped based on low/high MVD and ECP%. This analysis revealed a higher expression of vessel maturation and stabilisation factors (placental growth factor, PDGFB1, angiopoietin 1) in CC-RCC with high MVD, a group of CC-RCC highly enriched in low nuclear grade CC-RCC, with low ECP%. Our results suggest heterogeneity in angiogenic activity and vessel maturation of CC-RCC, to a large extent linked to nuclear grade, and, with probable therapeutic implications.

Induction of lymphangiogenesis in and around axillary lymph node metastases of patients with breast cancer.

We studied the presence of lymphangiogenesis in lymph node (LN) metastases of breast cancer. Lymph vessels were present in 52 of 61 (85.2%) metastatically involved LNs vs 26 of 104 (25.0%) uninvolved LNs (P<0.001). Furthermore, median intra- and perinodal lymphatic endothelial cell proliferation fractions were higher in metastatically involved LNs (P<0.001). This is the first report demonstrating lymphangiogenesis in LN metastases of cancer in general and breast cancer in particular.

Distinguishing blood and lymph vessel invasion in breast cancer: a prospective immunohistochemical study.

Recently, peritumoural (lympho)vascular invasion, assessed on haematoxylin-eosin (HE)-stained slides, was added to the St Gallen criteria for adjuvant treatment of patients with operable breast cancer (BC). New lymphatic endothelium-specific markers, such as D2-40, make it possible to distinguish between blood (BVI) and lymph vessel invasion (LVI). The aim of this prospective study was to quantify and compare BVI and LVI in a consecutive series of patients with BC. Three consecutive sections of all formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissue blocks of 95 BC resection specimens were (immuno)histochemically stained in a fixed order: HE, anti-CD34 (pan-endothelium) and anti-D2-40 (lymphatic endothelium) antibodies. All vessels with vascular invasion were marked and relocated on the corresponding slides. Vascular invasion was assigned LVI (CD34 [plus sign in circle] or [minus sign in circle]/D2-40 [plus sign in circle]) or BVI (CD34 [plus sign in circle]/D2-40 [minus sign in circle]) and intra- (contact with tumour cells or desmoplastic stroma) or peritumoural. The number of vessels with LVI and BVI as well as the number of tumour cells per embolus were counted. Results were correlated with clinico-pathological variables. Sixty-six (69.5%) and 36 (37.9%) patients had, respectively, LVI and BVI. The presence of 'vascular' invasion was missed on HE in 20% (peritumourally) and 65% (intratumourally) of cases. Although LVI and BVI were associated intratumourally (P=0.02), only peritumoural LVI, and not BVI, was associated with the presence of lymph node (LN) metastases (p(peri)=0.002). In multivariate analysis, peritumoural LVI was the only independent determinant of LN metastases. Furthermore, the number of vessels with LVI was larger than the number of vessels with BVI (P=0.001) and lymphatic emboli were larger than blood vessel emboli (P=0.004). We demonstrate that it is possible to distinguish between BVI and LVI in BC specimens using specific lymphatic endothelium markers. This is important to study the contribution of both processes to BC metastasis. Furthermore, immunohistochemical detection of lymphovascular invasion might be of value in clinical practice.

Angiogenesis and hypoxia in lymph node metastases is predicted by the angiogenesis and hypoxia in the primary tumour in patients with breast cancer.

Hypoxia and angiogenesis are important factors in breast cancer progression. Little is known of hypoxia and angiogenesis in lymph node metastases of breast cancer. The aim of this study was to quantify hypoxia, by hypoxia-induced marker expression levels, and angiogenesis, by endothelial cell proliferation, comparing primary breast tumours and axillary lymph node metastases. Tissue sections of the primary tumour and a lymph node metastasis of 60 patients with breast cancer were immunohistochemically stained for the hypoxia-markers carbonic anhydrase 9 (CA9), hypoxia-inducible factor-1alpha (Hif-1alpha) and DEC-1 and for CD34/Ki-67. Endothelial cell proliferation fraction (ECP%) and tumour cell proliferation fraction (TCP%) were assessed. On haematoxylin-eosin stain, the growth pattern and the presence of a fibrotic focus were assessed. Hypoxia-marker expression, ECP% and TCP% in primary tumours and in lymph node metastases were correlated to each other and to clinico-pathological variables. Median ECP% and TCP% in primary tumours and lymph node metastases were comparable (primary tumours: ECP%=4.02, TCP%=19.54; lymph node metastases: ECP%=5.47, TCP%=21.26). ECP% correlated with TCP% (primary tumours: r=0.63, P<0.001; lymph node metastases: r=0.76, P<0.001). CA9 and Hif-1alpha expression were correlated (primary tumours P=0.005; lymph node metastases P<0.001). In primary tumours, CA9 and Hif-1alpha expression were correlated with DEC-1 expression (P=0.05), presence of a fibrotic focus (P<0.007) and mixed/expansive growth pattern (P<0.001). Primary tumours and lymph node metastases with CA9 or Hif-1alpha expression had a higher ECP% and TCP% (P<0.003); in primary tumours, mixed/expansive growth pattern and fibrotic focus were characterised by higher ECP% (P=0.03). Furthermore, between primary tumours and lymph node metastases a correlation was found for ECP%, TCP%, CA9 and Hif-1alpha expression (ECP% r=0.51, P<0.001; TCP r=0.77, P<0.001; CA9 and Hif-1alpha P<0.001). Our data demonstrate that the growth of breast cancer lymph node metastases is angiogenesis dependent and that angiogenesis and hypoxia in the primary tumour predict angiogenesis and hypoxia in the lymph node metastases. Together with previous findings in breast cancer liver metastases, which grow in 96% of cases angiogenesis independently, these data suggest that both the intrinsic growth characteristics and angiogenic potential of breast cancer cells and the site-specific tumour microenvironment determine angiogenesis and hypoxia in breast cancer.