The function and mechanism of Human nasal mucosa-derived mesenchymal stem cells in allergic rhinitis in mice.

PURPOSE: To investigate the immunomodulatory effects and potential mechanisms of human nasal mucosa-derived mesenchymal stem cells(hNMSCs) on mouse allergic rhinitis, and to compare them with human umbilical cord-derived mesenchymal stem cells (hUCMSCs). METHOD: hNMSCs and hUCMSCs were isolated and cultured for identification from human nasal mucosa and umbilical cord tissues. A co-culture system of LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells/mouse peritoneal macrophages and MSCs was employed.Changes in inflammatory factors in RAW264.7 cells and the culture medium as well as the expression of NF-κB signaling pathway in RAW264.7 cells were detected. Forty-eight BALB/c mice were randomly divided into control, OVA, hNMSCs, and hUCMSCs groups. An allergic rhinitis (AR) model was established through ovalbumin (OVA) stimulation and treated with hNMSCs and hUCMSCs. Subsequent assessments included related symptoms, biological changes, and the expression of the NF-κB signaling pathway in the nasal mucosa of mice. RESULTS: MSCs can be successfully isolated from human nasal mucosa. Both hNMSCs and hUCMSCs interventions significantly reverseed the inflammation induced by LPS and suppressed the upregulation of the NF-κB signaling pathway in RAW264.7 cells. Treatment with hNMSCs and hUCMSCs alleviated mouse allergic symptoms, reduced levels of total IgE, OVA-specific IgE and IgG1 in mouse serum, TH2-type cytokines and chemokines in mouse nasal mucosa, and TH2-type cytokines in mouse spleen culture medium, while also inhibiting the expression of the NF-κB signaling pathway in the nasal mucosa of mice. moreover, the hNMSCs group showed a more significant reduction in OVA-specific IgG1 in serum and IL-4 expression levels in mouse spleen culture medium compared to the hUCMSCs group. CONCLUSION: Our findings suggest that hNMSCs can ameliorate allergic rhinitis in mice, with a certain advantage in anti-inflammatory effects compared to hUCMSCs. The NF-κB pathway is likely involved in the anti-inflammatory regulation process by hNMSCs.Therefore, hNMSCs might represent a novel therapeutic approach for allergic rhinitis.

Up-regulation of systemic and local BDNF in non-allergic Nasal Polyps in China.

Objective: Although the role of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in allergic rhinitis and/or nasal polyps (NPs) development has been studied, the contribution of BDNF in non-allergic NPs has not been evaluated yet. This study was to investigate the possible role of BDNF in non-allergic NPs pathogenesis. Methods: The study was carried out at The Second Hospital of Shandong University from December 2020 to November 2021. The non-allergic NPs patients (n=26) and the control group (n=22) were included. Lund-Mackay CT scores, nasal endoscopy scores, and pulmonary function testing were evaluated before surgery. Tissue and serum levels of BDNF, eosinophil cationic protein (ECP), and cytokeratins 5 (CK5) were assessed between different groups. Result: The BDNF level in serum and tissue, CK5 count, and eosinophil infiltration in tissue were higher in non-allergic NPs. The eosinophils infiltration, ECP mRNA expression level, as well as BDNF mRNA level were increased in the BDNFhigh subgroup compared with BDNFlow subgroup. Significantly negative correlations between BDNF count and the situation of airway obstruction were found in non-allergic NPs. Conclusion: BDNF may have both local and systemic effects in non-allergic NPs pathogenesis. BDNF may be a possible therapeutic target or an indicator for eosinophilic NPs management.

Relationship between bleeding sites and clinical data: experience of 646 epistaxis cases in 8 years.

PURPOSE: This study aims to investigate the bleeding sites and their relationship with clinical characteristics in hospitalized epistaxis patients. METHODS: We retrospectively reviewed the data of 646 hospitalized epistaxis patients. RESULTS: The bleeding sites were identified in 395 (61.1%) patients and unidentified in 251 (38.9%). We found that age > 50 years (P = 0.030) and the history of cardiovascular diseases (P = 0.027) were more frequent in patients with unidentified bleeding sites. Among patients with identified sites, inferior meatus (n = 130, 32.9%) was the most common site, followed by the septal surface of the olfactory region (n = 102, 25.8%), nasal septum (n = 80, 20.3%), middle meatus (n = 60, 15.2%), and others (n = 23, 5.8%). After dividing patients into five groups by the area of the bleeding sites, we found significant differences in age (P = 0.026), history of hypertension (P = 0.001), cardiovascular diseases (P = 0.032), and nasal packing (P = 0.011). The logistic regression also revealed that these four factors were predictors for different bleeding sites. CONCLUSION: The bleeding sites can be identified in most epistaxis patients. Age > 50 years and the history of cardiovascular diseases are more frequent in patients with unidentified bleeding sites. In our patients, the most common bleeding site is inferior meatus, followed by the septal surface of the olfactory region, nasal septum, and middle meatus. Age, histories of hypertension, cardiovascular diseases, and nasal packing are factors associated with the bleeding risks of different bleeding sites. According to the different clinical characteristics of patients, the order of the nasal endoscopic examination should be adjusted to develop their treatment plans.

The role of ZEB1 in regulating tight junctions in antrochoanal polyp.

Background: Antrochoanal polyp (ACP) is a benign nasal mass of unknown etiology. Tight junctions (TJs) are essential to the epithelial barrier that protects the body from external damage. However, the phenotype of tight junction in ACP is currently unclear. Methods: The samples were collected from 20 controls, 37 patients with ACP and 45 patients with chronic rhinosinusitis with nasal polyp (CRSwNP). Quantitative Real-Time PCR (qRT-PCR) and immunofluorescence staining (IF) were performed to analyze the expressions of TJs markers (ZO-1, claudin-3 and occludin) and ZEB1. hNEpCs were transfected with ZEB1 small interfering RNA (si-ZEB1) or ZEB1 over-expression plasmid (OE-ZEB1). qRT-PCR and Western blotting were used to determine the levels of TJs-related markers. Primary human nasal epithelial cells (hNECs) were stimulated with IL-17A and si-ZEB1, and the expression of epithelial barrier markers were measured by qRT-PCR and Western blotting. Results: Compared to the control group, ACP group showed a significant downregulation in both mRNA and protein levels of ZO-1, occludin, and claudin-3. Furthermore, disease severity correlates positively with the degree of disruption of tight junctions. In addition, higher expression levels of ZEB1, IL-17A, and IFN-γ were observed in the ACP group compared to controls. Overexpression of ZEB1 in hNEpCs led to impairments in the levels of ZO-1, occludin, and claudin-3, while silencing of ZEB1 expression was found to enhance the barrier function of epithelial cells. Finally, IL-17 stimulation of hNECs impaired the expression of TJs-associated molecules (ZO-1, occludin, and claudin-3), which was effectively reversed by the IL-17A + si-ZEB1 group. Conclusions: The tight junctions in ACP were extremely damaged and were correlated with the severity of the disease. ZEB1 was involved in the pathogenesis of ACP mediated by IL-17A through regulating tight junctions.

Difference of Antrochoanal Polyps Between Children and Adults in the Chinese Population.

OBJECTIVE: This study aims to find the difference in clinical and immunopathological characteristics between children and adults with antrochoanal polyps (ACPs) in the Chinese population. METHODS: The clinical data of 69 patients diagnosed with ACPs were retrospectively analyzed. Cytokine levels in 16 controls and 40 ACPs tissues were determined by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). The expression of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-9 was measured using qPCR, immunofluorescent staining, and western blot. RESULTS: There were 51 (73.9%) children (<18 years old) and 18 (26.1%) adults (≥18 years old). The sex ratio differed significantly between the two groups (p = 0.0032). There were no significant differences in the nasal side of ACPs and approaches to surgery between the two groups. In both groups, the most common symptom was nasal obstruction, followed by nasal discharge. As for associated nasal diseases, there was a significant difference between the two groups in septal deviation (p = 0.0223). Adult patients showed significantly higher expression of IL-8 mRNA than children (p = 0.0424). The mRNA and protein levels of MMP-9 were also significantly higher in adult patients than in children (p = 0.0498 and 0.0009, respectively). CONCLUSION: In the Chinese population, the comorbidities and immunopathological characteristics of adult ACP patients are different from those of children. The level of IL-8 and MMP-9 was significantly higher in ACPs of adults than in children, which may contribute to the more severe tissue remolding in adult ACP patients. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: 3 Laryngoscope, 134:2093-2099, 2024.

Rare primary angiitis of the central nervous system affecting the clivus: A case report.

Diseases involving the clivus are highly variable, and the incidence of each disease is rare. Primary central nervous system vasculitis (PACNS) is a rare disease with very heterogeneous clinical manifestations, its diagnosis is often challenging, and histopathology is the gold standard. We report a patient with PACNS of the clivus, with a 1-month history of headache and diplopia, who was misdiagnosed as having a tumor of the clivus during prior treatment, due to computed tomography findings of clivus occupation and bone destruction. Endoscopic resection of the nasal clivus lesions was performed. Pathological examination revealed a small abscess with hemorrhage, necrosis, extensive infiltration of lymphocytes and plasma cells, and granulation tissue scar formation. After histopathological examination, the diagnosis was confirmed, and oral glucocorticoid and cyclophosphamide were commenced. This study is the first to report a tumor-like PACNS, that occurs in the clivus, thereby enriching our understanding of PACNS.

miR-200a-3p regulates epithelial-mesenchymal transition and inflammation in chronic rhinosinusitis with nasal polyps by targeting ZEB1 via ERK/p38 pathway.

BACKGROUND: Several biological processes are regulated by miR-200a-3p, including cell proliferation, migration, and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). In this study we aimed to uncover the diagnostic value and molecular mechanisms of miR-200a-3p in chronic rhinosinusitis with nasal polyps (CRSwNP). METHODS: The expressions of miR-200a-3p were detected by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR), Zinc finger E-box binding homeobox 1 (ZEB1) levels were examined by qRT-PCR and immunofluorescence staining. The interaction between miR-200a-3p and ZEB1 was predicted by TargetScan Human 8.0 and confirmed by dual-luciferase reporter assays. In addition, the effect of miR-200a-3p and ZEB1 on EMT-related makers and inflammation cytokines was assessed by qRT-PCR and Western blotting in human nasal epithelial cells (hNEpCs) and primary human nasal mucosal epithelial cells (hNECs). RESULTS: We found that miR-200a-3p was downregulated in non-eosinophilic and eosinophilic CRSwNP patients when compared with controls. The diagnostic value of miR-200a-3p in serum is reflected by the receiver operating characteristic curve and the 22-item Sino-Nasal Outcome Test. Bioinformatic analysis and luciferase reporter assay identified ZEB1 as a target of miR-200a-3p. ZEB1 was more highly expressed in CRSwNP than in controls. Furthermore, miR-200a-3p inhibitor or ZEB1 overexpression significantly suppressed the epithelial marker E-cadherin; promoted the activation of vimentin, α-spinal muscle atrophy, and N-cadherin; and aggravated inflammation in hNEpCs. Knockdown of ZEB1 significantly alleviated the cellular remodeling caused by miR-200a-3p inhibitor via the extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK)/p38 pathway in hNECs. CONCLUSIONS: miR-200a-3p suppresses EMT and inflammation by regulating the expression of ZEB1 via the ERK/p38 pathway. Our study presents new ideas for protecting nasal epithelial cells from tissue remodeling and finding a possible target for disease.

A Rare Case of Metastatic Clear Cell Renal Cell Carcinoma to the Petroclival Region Presenting as Posterior Cranial Neuropathies.

We present a case of metastatic renal cell carcinoma (RCC) to the petroclival region with clinical symptoms manifested as posterior cranial neuropathies. A 65-year-old male presented with headache symptom for over 1 year, during which time he was diagnosed with RCC and underwent right nephrectomy. However, the headache symptom and cranial neuropathies had been attributed to cranial neuritis all the time until the surgical removal of metastatic tumor in the petroclival region led to the diagnosis of metastatic RCC. RCC has a tendency for metastasis early. The incidence of spread of RCC to brain is a rarity in clinical practice. When a patient presents with cranial nerve neuropathies, the possibility of metastatic RCC should be sought. Brain metastases display nonspecific presentations, and it is useful to examine with magnetic resonance imaging and computed tomography scans radiologically.

Clinical Characteristics of Sphenoid Sinus Fungus Ball: A Nine-year Retrospective Study of 77 Cases.

OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to investigate the clinical characteristics of sphenoid sinus fungus ball (SSFB) to help increase the accuracy of diagnosis and efficiency of treatment. METHODS: We retrospectively analyzed the data of 77 patients who were histopathologically diagnosed with SSFB. RESULTS: The mean age of SSFB patients was 52.4 years (range 25-84), and 47 patients (61.0%) were female. Compared to age-matched and sex-matched chronic rhinosinusitis (CRS) patients, headache was more common in SSFB patients (79.2%; p < 0.0001). SSFB patients also had higher prevalence of diabetes than CRS (p = 0.0420). The features of computed tomography (CT) were sphenoid sinus opacification (100%), sclerosis (93.5%), calcification (76.6%), and bone erosion (41.6%). Functional endoscopic sinus surgery (FESS) was the best treatment option, and the trans-ethmoid (n = 64, 83.1%) was the most commonly used approach. No one experienced a recurrence of SSFB in 44 successfully contacted patients. Six months after FESS, 91.0% of patients (40/44) established proper drainage in the sphenoid sinus. The recovery rates for headache and nasal symptoms were 91.7% (33/36) and 77.8% (7/9) respectively. CONCLUSION: SSFB is more prevalent in older women and usually presents as unilateral headache. Diabetes is a potential risk factor for SSFB. CT findings provide evidence for diagnosis and suggestions for surgical approaches. FESS is the optimal treatment for SSFB. After FESS, most patients had good prognosis with no recurrence of SSFB. However, regular endoscopic follow-up is required due to the possibility of the postoperative closure of sphenoid ostium. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: 3 Laryngoscope, 133:3292-3298, 2023.

Comparative analysis of three common imaging modalities for nasolabial cysts.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the clinical diagnostic value of ultrasonography (USG), computed tomography (CT), and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) for nasolabial cysts. METHODS: The clinical and imaging data of 20 patients with 21 nasolabial cysts confirmed surgically and histopathologically were retrospectively analyzed. RESULTS: The largest cyst was 3.4 × 2.7 × 2.3 cm, and the smallest cyst was 1.1 × 0.7 × 0.5 cm. All cysts were located in the soft tissue between the nasolabial fold and maxillary bone. USG showed sensitivity of 95%, accuracy of 95%, and a missed diagnosis rate of 5%; CT showed sensitivity of 80%, accuracy of 80%, and a missed diagnosis rate of 20%; and MRI showed sensitivity of 85%, accuracy of 85%, and a missed diagnosis rate of 15%. CONCLUSIONS: USG showed higher sensitivity and accuracy and a lower missed diagnosis rate than CT and MRI. Therefore, USG is worth popularizing on a large scale for the diagnosis of nasolabial cysts.

Schwannoma in the Olfactory Groove: Two Case Reports.

The occurrence of an isolated schwannoma in the olfactory groove is extremely rare. We herein present 2 cases of schwannomas in the olfactory groove that were treated with endoscopic excision. In these 2 cases, the tumor originated in the cribriform plate and cerebrospinal fluid rhinorrhea occurred after tumor resection, which was repaired using tissue grafts.

Predictive Value of Adenoid-Nasopharyngeal Ratio in the Diagnosis of Secretory Otitis Media.

OBJECTIVES: To explore the associated factors of otitis media with effusion (OME) and analyze the diagnostic value of the adenoid-nasopharyngeal (A/N) ratio to OME. METHODS: Patients with adenoid hypertrophy (AH) recently in 2 years were collected, including sex, age, duration, with/without rhinosinusitis, and examination results, including Cone Beam Computerized Tomography (CBCT) sinus imaging, tympanometry, pure tone audiometry (PTA), blood test, and allergen detection. According to Liden/Jerger's classification, the patients were divided into two groups: Type B and type C, which were defined as the tympanometry abnormal group (TAG), and the rest were classified as the tympanometry normal group (TNG). RESULTS: A total of 316 children were included in this study. Age and duration were significantly younger and shorter in TAG (6.0(4.0-9.0) vs.5.0(4.0-7.0)); 12.0(4.0-24.0) vs.6.0(2.0-12.0)). Compared to TNG, the allergen test results of fx5 (protein, milk, cod, wheat, peanut, and soybean) in TAG were higher (0.09(0.04-0.25) vs.0.14(0.05-0.45)), but eosinophilia in blood was lower (count: 0.21(0.13-0.35) vs. 0.18(0.12-0.27); ratio: 3.10 (1.90-4.70) vs. 2.50 (1.65-3.80)). A/N ratio and Visual obstruction ratio had a statistical difference (Z = -3.770, P < .01) but the two ratios didn't have too much disparity (0.82(0.74-0.88) VS 0.80(0.75-0.80)), and they had a positive correlation (r = 0.345, P < .01). A/N ratio of TAG was higher than TNG (0.78(0.70-0.85) vs. 0.86(0.82-0.90)) and had a positive correlation with increasing negative middle ear pressure (r = -3.777, P < .01). A/N ratio was an associated factor of OME (OR:1355.611, P = .006), the cut-off value of A/N ratio was 0.815(sensitivity: 75.3%, specificity: 64.3%, area under the curve (AUC): 0.747). CONCLUSIONS: A/N ratio indirectly reflected the abnormality of tympanometry in this study. When A/N ratio reaches 0.815, patients are at a higher risk of having OME so it could be a predictor of OME in patients with adenoid hypertrophy.

Endoscopic nasal surgery for mucocele and pyogenic mucocele of turbinate: Three case reports.

BACKGROUND: Cases of turbinate mucocele or pyogenic mucocele are extremely rare. During nasal endoscopy, turbinate hypertrophy can be detected in patients with turbinate or pyogenic mucocele. However, in many instances, differentiating between turbinate hypertrophy and turbinate mucocele is difficult. Radiological examinations, such as computed tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), are essential for the accurate diagnosis of turbinate mucocele. Herein, we report three cases of mucocele or pyogenic mucocele of turbinate, including their clinical presentation, imaging findings, and treatments, to help rhinologists understand this condition better. CASE SUMMARY: Three cases of turbinate and pyogenic mucocele were encountered in our hospital. In all patients, nasal obstruction and headache were the most common symptoms, and physical examination revealed hypertrophic turbinates. On CT scan, mucocele appeared as non-enhancing, homogeneous, hypodense, well-defined, rounded, and expansile lesions. Meanwhile, MRI clearly illustrated the cystic nature of the lesion on T2 sequences. Two patients with inferior turbinate mucocele underwent mucocele lining removal, while the patient with pyogenic mucocele underwent endoscopic middle turbinate marsupialization. The patients were followed up on the first, third, sixth month, and 1 year after discharge, and no complaints of headache and nasal congestion were reported during this period. CONCLUSION: In conclusion, both CT and MRI are helpful in the diagnosis of turbinate or pyogenic mucocele. Additionally, endoscopic nasal surgery is considered to be the most effective treatment method.

Tissue Cytokine Adenoid Experssion in Hypertrophic Adenoid Gland in Children with Allergic Rhinitis.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the inflammatory pattern in terms of inflammatory cells and cytokines expression in children with adenoid hypertrophy (AH) and coexistent allergic rhinitis (AR). STUDY DESIGN: A cross-sectional analytical study. PLACE AND DURATION OF STUDY: Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Shandong Provincial ENT Hospital, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong P. R. China, from October 2018 to August 2020. METHODOLOGY: A sample of 102 children with AH, who underwent adenoidectomy were enrolled. They were divided into two groups of AH, alone and AH with AR (AH+AR). A routine complete blood count, and the number of eosinophils in adenoid tissue was measured using hematoxylin-eosin staining. The tissue expression of cytokines was carried out using real-time quantitative PCR. RESULTS: Forty-eight children (47%) were diagnosed with AR. The number and percentage of eosinophils in peripheral blood and adenoid tissue were statistically (p <0.05) higher in the group of AH+AR than AH alone. Furthermore, in patients with AH+AR, the mRNA expression levels of IL-12 and IFN-γ decreased, while IL-4, IL-8, IL-18, IL-33, H2R, LTR1, LTR2 and GCR all increased in adenoid tissue. CONCLUSION: The pathological mechanism underlying adenoid hypertrophy in children with comorbid allergic rhinitis can be involved with predominant tissue eosinophilia and type 2 (or Th 2) inflammation. Key Words: Adenoid hypertrophy, Allergic rhinitis, Inflammatory features, Cytokines, Eosinophils.

Endoscopic sphenopalatine artery electrocoagulation for refractory epistaxis: a clinical study.

BACKGROUND: The electrical coagulation of sphenopalatine artery(SPA) under nasal endoscopy has gradually become an important surgical intervention for epistaxis. AIM: To investigate the effectiveness and complications of SPA electrocoagulation for epistaxis. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The clinical data of 47 patients undergoing SPA electrocoagulation were analyzed, retrospectively. RESULTS: Forty-seven patients were enrolled, with a male to female ratio of approximately 3:1. 11of 36 were under 45 years old, 25 of 36were 45 years old and above. Among female patients, one was under 45 years old, and the others were 45 years old and above, but there was no significant difference in gender composition between different age groups (χ 2 = 1.069, p = .301). All patients were unilateral epistaxis. The effective control rates of epistaxis within 24 h after surgery, early postoperative, and late postoperative were 100%, 100%, and 97.9%, respectively. There were 6 patients with complications, including 3 patients with nasal dryness and ecdysis on the affected side, 2 patients with numbness on upper lip, 1 patient with nasal adhesion and pus on affected side. CONCLUSION AND SIGNIFICANCE: Refractory epistaxis has no relationship with age and sex, SPA electrcoagulation can effectively control refractory epistaxis and is an effective surgical method.

Treatment of Orbital Complications Following Acute Rhinosinusitis in Children.

BACKGROUND: The orbital complications account for about 80% of all complications secondary to acute rhinosinusitis. If the treatment is not correct and in time, orbital complications could progress rapidly, leading to optic neuritis, cavernous sinus thrombophlebitis or life-threatening intracranial complications. AIMS: To evaluate the therapeutic efficacy of conservative therapy for the patients with orbital cellulitis and endoscopic sinus surgery (ESS) performed on patients with subperiosteal abscess (SPA) secondary to acute rhinosinusitis in children. STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective cross-sectional study. METHODS: The retrospective study included 31 pediatric patients with orbital complications secondary to acute rhinosinusitis. In all cases, intensive treatment was initiated with a combination of oral or intravenous antibiotics, glucocorticoid and gelomyrtol forte after admission. ESS was performed if an improvement in the condition of patients did not occur after 48 hours. However, the patients with orbital SPA, motility disorders of eyeball or decreased vision received ESS immediately within 24 hours. RESULTS: Sixteen patients were cured by conservative therapy and 15 patients by ESS. All of the signs and symptoms disappeared after conservative therapy or ESS. There were no recurrences within the follow-up period of 1 to 8 years. CONCLUSION: Conservative therapy is an effective method for patients with inflammatory edema and most cases of orbital cellulitis in children. SPA can be cured by ESS.

Increased expression of transcription factor Bcl-6 in chronic rhinosinusitis with nasal polyps.

B cell activation and excessive immunoglobulin (Ig) production were suggested as the key molecular events of chronic rhinosinusitis with nasal polyp (CRSwNP). However, whether T follicular cells (Tfh cells) were involved in this process has not been documented. In this study, 22 CRSwNP patients and 12 normal controls were enrolled, Bcl-6 (the key transcription factor for Tfh cell differentiation) immunoreactivity was examined by immunohistochemical staining, and the mRNA and protein expression of Bcl-6 and IL-21 was examined using qPCR, ELISA and Western blot, respectively. Moreover, the frequencies of Bcl-6(+)CD4(+) cells (Tfh cells) in polyp tissues and normal controls were measured by flow cytometry. We found that Bcl-6 mRNA and protein levels, as well as the frequencies of Bcl-6(+)CD4(+) cells were significantly increased in polyp tissues compared with normal controls. The frequencies of Bcl-6(+)CD4(+) cells were found to be significantly associated with B cell cluster formation, tissue eosinophilia, asthma comorbidity and polyp recurrence. These findings thus added a new insight into the molecular mechanisms underlying CRSwNP and raise the possibility that Tfh cells could be a novel therapeutic target for difficult-to-treat CRSwNP.