Endothelial barrier dysfunction caused by LPS correlates with phosphorylation of HSP27 in vivo.

Lung edema during sepsis is triggered by formation of gaps between endothelial cells followed by macrophage infiltration. Endothelial gap formation has been proposed to involve changes in the structure of the actin filament cytoskeleton. Heat shock protein 27 (HSP27) is believed to modulate actin filament dynamics or structure, in a manner dependent on its phosphorylation status. We hypothesized that HSP27 may play a role in endothelial gap formation, by affecting actin dependent events in endothelial cells. As there has been no report concerning HSP27 in lung edema in vivo, we examined induction and phosphorylation of HSP27 in lung following LPS injection, as a model of sepsis. In lung, HSP27 mainly localized in capillary endothelial cells of the alveolus, and in smooth muscle cells of pulmonary arteries. HSP27 became significantly more phosphorylated at 3 h after LPS treatment, while the distribution of HSP27 remained unchanged. Pre-treatment with anti-TNFalpha antibody, which has been shown to reduce lung injury, blocked increases in HSP27 phosphorylation at 3 h. HSP27 phosphorylation was also increased in cultured rat pulmonary arterial endothelial cells (RPAEC) by treatment with TNFalpha, LPS, or H2O2. This phosphorylation was blocked by pre-treatment with SB203580, an inhibitor of the upstream kinase, p38 MAP kinase. Increased endothelial permeability caused by H2O2 in vitro was also blocked by SB203580. The amount of actin associated with HSP27 was reduced after treatment with LPS, or H2O2. In summary, HSP27 phosphorylation temporally correlated with LPS induced pathological endothelial cell gap formation in vivo and in a cell culture model system. This is the first report of increased HSP27 phosphorylation associated with pathological lung injury in an animal model of sepsis.

Adenovirus calcium phosphate coprecipitates enhance squamous cell carcinoma gene transfer.

OBJECTIVES/HYPOTHESIS: Adenoviral-mediated gene transfer offers a potential new treatment strategy for squamous cell cancer of the head and neck (SCCHN). Initial studies on some SCCHN cell lines have shown that these cells can be resistant to adenovirus-mediated gene transfer, requiring large amounts of vector and long infection times. The objectives of this study were to identify the barriers to gene transfer in three SCCHN lines, FaDu, SCC-9, and SCC-15, and to develop a method to circumvent the obstacles. We hypothesized that a low expression of adenovirus receptors may limit adenovirus infection and this may be overcome by using adenovirus complexed with calcium phosphate coprecipitates. METHODS: Using standard cell and molecular biology techniques, the infectability of SCCHN cells was investigated. RESULTS: Using Cy3-labeled adenovirus, we found minimal binding of adenovirus to FaDu cells and variable levels of binding among SCC-9 and SCC-15 cells. Northern blot analysis indicated that messenger RNA (mRNA) transcripts for coxsackie-adenovirus receptor, which binds adenovirus, were absent in FaDu cells but present in SCC-9 and SCC-15 cells. Integrin alphavbeta5, which binds and facilitates internalization of adenovirus, were expressed at low levels in all three cell types. We overcame these barriers by using adenovirus complexed with calcium phosphate precipitates. Total transgene expression and the number of cells expressing transgene were increased in all three cancer lines using adenovirus complexed with calcium phosphate precipitates compared with adenovirus that was not complexed. CONCLUSIONS: Data in the present study suggest that adenovirus-mediated gene transfer to SCCHN cell lines is a result of limited viral receptors. Delivering adenovirus in a calcium phosphate coprecipitate enhanced gene transfer and, perhaps, the therapeutic index.

Identification and characterization of hic-5/ARA55 as an hsp27 binding protein.

hsp27 has been reported to participate in a wide variety of activities, including resistance to thermal and metabolic stress, regulation of growth and differentiation, and acting as a molecular chaperone or a regulator of actin polymerization. We hypothesized that these diverse functions are regulated in a cell- or tissue-specific manner via interaction with various binding proteins. To investigate this hypothesis, we used hsp27 as a "bait" to screen a yeast two-hybrid cDNA library from rat kidney glomeruli and identified a novel hsp27 binding protein, hic-5 (also known as ARA55), a focal adhesion protein and steroid receptor co-activator. Biochemical interaction between hsp27 and hic-5 was confirmed by co-immunoprecipitation, and critical protein.protein interaction regions were mapped to the hic-5 LIM domains and the hsp27 C-terminal domain. Initial analysis of the functional role of hsp27.hic-5 interaction revealed that hic-5 significantly inhibited the protection against heat-induced cell death conferred by hsp27 overexpression in co-transfected 293T cells. In contrast, when a non-hsp27-interacting hic-5 truncation mutant (hic-5/DeltaLIM4) was co-expressed with hsp27, the hic-5 inhibition of hsp27 protection was absent. We conclude that hic-5 is a true hsp27 binding protein and inhibits the ability of hsp27 to provide protection against heat shock in an interaction-dependent manner.

KGF alters gene expression in human airway epithelia: potential regulation of the inflammatory response.

Keratinocyte growth factor (KGF) regulates several functions in adult and developing lung epithelia; it causes proliferation, stimulates secretion of fluid and electrolytes, enhances repair, and may minimize injury. To gain insight into the molecular processes influenced by KGF, we applied KGF to primary cultures of well-differentiated human airway epithelia and used microarray hybridization to assess the abundance of gene transcripts. Of 7,069 genes tested, KGF changed expression levels of 910. Earlier studies showed that KGF causes epithelial proliferation, and as expected, treatment altered expression of numerous genes involved in cell proliferation. We found that KGF stimulated transepithelial Cl(-) transport, but the number of cystic fibrosis (CF) transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) transcripts fell. Although transcripts for ClC-1 and ClC-7 Cl(-) channels increased, KGF failed to augment transepithelial Cl(-) transport in CF epithelia, suggesting that KGF-stimulated Cl(-) transport in differentiated airway epithelia depends on the CFTR Cl(-) channel. Interestingly, KGF decreased transcripts for many interferon (IFN)-induced genes. IFN causes trafficking of Stat dimers to the nucleus, where they activate transcription of IFN-induced genes. We found that KGF prevented the IFN-stimulated trafficking of Stat1 from the cytosol to the nucleus, suggesting a molecular mechanism for KGF-mediated suppression of the IFN-signaling pathway. These results suggest that in addition to stimulating proliferation and repair of damaged airway epithelia, KGF stimulates Cl(-) transport and may dampen the response of epithelial cells to inflammatory mediators.

Apical localization of the coxsackie-adenovirus receptor by glycosyl-phosphatidylinositol modification is sufficient for adenovirus-mediated gene transfer through the apical surface of human airway epithelia.

In well-differentiated human airway epithelia, the coxsackie B and adenovirus type 2 and 5 receptor (CAR) resides primarily on the basolateral membrane. This location may explain the observation that gene transfer is inefficient when adenovirus vectors are applied to the apical surface. To further test this hypothesis and to investigate requirements and barriers to apical gene transfer to differentiated human airway epithelia, we expressed CAR in which the transmembrane and cytoplasmic tail were replaced by a glycosyl-phosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchor (GPI-CAR). As controls, we expressed wild-type CAR and CAR lacking the cytoplasmic domain (Tailless-CAR). All three constructs enhanced gene transfer with similar efficiencies in fibroblasts. In airway epithelia, GPI-CAR localized specifically to the apical membrane, where it bound adenovirus and enhanced gene transfer to levels obtained when vector was applied to the basolateral membrane. Moreover, GPI-CAR facilitated gene transfer of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator to cystic fibrosis airway epithelia, correcting the Cl(-) transport defect. In contrast, when we expressed wild-type CAR it localized to the basolateral membrane and failed to increase apical gene transfer. Only a small amount of Tailless-CAR resided in the apical membrane, and the effects on apical virus binding and gene transfer were minimal. These data indicate that binding of adenovirus to an apical membrane receptor is sufficient to mediate effective gene transfer to human airway epithelia and that the cytoplasmic domain of CAR is not required for this process. The results suggest that targeting apical receptors in differentiated airway epithelia may be sufficient for gene transfer in the genetic disease cystic fibrosis.

Binding of adeno-associated virus type 5 to 2,3-linked sialic acid is required for gene transfer.

Recombinant adeno-associated viruses (AAV) are promising gene therapy vectors. Whereas AAV serotype 2-mediated gene transfer to muscle has partially replaced factor IX deficiency in hemophilia patients, its ability to mediate gene transfer to the lungs for cystic fibrosis is hindered by lack of apical receptors. However, AAV serotype 5 infects human airway epithelia from the lumenal surface. We found that in contrast to AAV2, the apical membrane of airway epithelia contains abundant high affinity receptors for AAV5. Binding and gene transfer with AAV5 was abolished by genetic or enzymatic removal of sialic acid from the cell surface. Furthermore, binding and gene transfer to airway epithelia was competed by lectins that specifically bind 2,3-linked sialic acid. These observations suggest that 2,3-linked sialic acid is either a receptor for AAV5 or it is a necessary component of a receptor complex. Further elucidation of the receptor for this virus should enhance understanding of parvovirus biology and expand the therapeutic targets for AAV vectors.

A conditional probability analysis of cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator gating indicates that ATP has multiple effects during the gating cycle.

ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters bind and hydrolyze ATP. In the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator Cl(-) channel, this interaction with ATP generates a gating cycle between a closed (C) and two open (O1 and O2) conformations. To understand better how ATP controls channel activity, we examined gating transitions from the C to the O1 and O2 states and from these open states to the C conformation. We made three main observations. First, we found that the channel can open into either the O1 or O2 state, that the frequency of transitions to both states was increased by ATP concentration, and that ATP increased the relative proportion of openings into O1 vs. O2. These results indicate that ATP can interact with the closed state to open the channel in at least two ways, which may involve binding to nucleotide-binding domains (NBDs) NBD1 and NBD2. Second, ATP prolonged the burst duration and altered the way in which the channel closed. These data suggest that ATP also interacts with the open channel. Third, the channel showed runs of specific types of open-closed transitions. This finding suggests a mechanism with more than one cycle of gating transitions. These data suggest models to explain how ATP influences conformational transitions in cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator and perhaps other ABC transporters.

Antimicrobial peptides and proteins in the innate defense of the airway surface.

Recent studies have advanced our understanding of innate immune mechanisms that protect the airways and maintain a sterile lung. Multiple antimicrobial peptides and proteins have been identified in airway secretions and their roles are beginning to be established in animal models. Moreover, evidence for coupling between the innate and adaptive immune systems is beginning to emerge. The understanding of the innate airway defense system offers the opportunity for the development of novel therapeutic approaches.

Cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator Cl- channels with R domain deletions and translocations show phosphorylation-dependent and -independent activity.

Phosphorylation of the R domain regulates cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator Cl- channel activity. Earlier studies suggested that the R domain controls activity via more than one mechanism; a phosphorylated R domain may stimulate activity, and an unphosphorylated R domain may prevent constitutive activity, i.e. opening with ATP alone. However, the mechanisms responsible for these two regulatory properties are not understood. In this study we asked whether the two effects are dependent on its position in the protein and whether smaller regions from the R domain mediate the effects. We found that several portions of the R domain conferred phosphorylation-stimulated activity. This was true whether the R domain sequences were present in their normal location or were translocated to the C terminus. We also found that some parts of the R domain could be deleted without inducing constitutive activity. However, when residues 760-783 were deleted, channels opened without phosphorylation. Translocation of the R domain to the C terminus did not prevent constitutive activity. These results suggest that different parts of the phosphorylated R domain can stimulate activity and that their location within the protein is not critical. In contrast, prevention of constitutive activity required a short specific sequence that could not be moved to the C terminus. These results are consistent with a recent model of an R domain composed primarily of random coil in which more than one phosphorylation site is capable of stimulating channel activity, and net activity reflects interactions between multiple sites in the R domain and the rest of the channel.

cAMP stimulation of HCO3- secretion across airway epithelia.

To test for the presence of HCO(3)(-) transport across airway epithelia, we measured short-circuit current in primary cultures of canine and human airway epithelia bathed in a Cl(-)-free, HCO(3)(-)/CO(2)-buffered solution. cAMP agonists stimulated a secretory current that was likely carried by HCO(3)(-) because it was absent in HCO(3)(-)-free solutions. In addition, the cAMP-stimulated current was inhibited by the carbonic anhydrase inhibitor, acetazolamide, and by the apical addition of a blocker of cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR), diphenylamine-2-carboxylate. The current was dependent on Na(+) because it was inhibited by removing Na(+) from the submucosal solution and by inhibition of the Na(+)-K(+)-ATPase with ouabain. The cAMP-stimulated current was absent in cystic fibrosis (CF) airway epithelia. These data suggest that cAMP agonists can stimulate HCO(3)(-) secretion across airway epithelia and that CFTR may provide a conductive pathway for HCO(3)(-) movement across the apical membrane.

Lectin binding and endocytosis at the apical surface of human airway epithelia.

The specificity of lectin binding to distinct saccharides makes them valuable reagents for investigation and identification of cells within complex tissues and potentially for delivery of agents into cells. Therefore we examined lectin binding to airway epithelia. We used an in vitro model of primary cultures of well-differentiated human airway epithelia and applied the lectins to the apical surface of living epithelia. This approach limited binding specifically to the extracellular surface of the apical membrane. Of 32 lectins studied, we found 15 that bound to the apical membrane. The pattern varied from diffuse binding to the surface of nearly all the cells, to binding to a small subset of the cells. Our data combined with earlier studies identify lectins that may be used to detect specific populations of epithelial cells. Because lectins may be used to deliver a variety of agents, including gene transfer vectors, to airway cells, we examined endocytosis of lectins. We found that several lectins bound to the apical surface were actively taken up into the cells. These data may be of value for studies of airway epithelial structure and may facilitate the targeting of the epithelial apical surface.

Z-1,1-Dichloro-2,3-diphenylcyclopropanes block human prostate carcinoma cell proliferation, inhibit prostate-specific antigen expression, and initiate apoptosis.

BACKGROUND: Z-1,1-Dichloro-2,3-diphenylcyclopropane (A(II)) has long been known to be active against models of breast carcinoma. Microtubule perturbation and interaction at type II estrogen binding sites mediate its actions. METHODS: Since these targets are potentially useful for treatment of prostate tumors, we studied the drug's effects on androgen-sensitive (LNCaP) and -independent (PC-3) human prostatic carcinoma lines. Effects on cell growth and morphology, prostate-specific antigen (PSA) expression, and cell cycle kinetics were determined by microscopy, antibody-based methods, flow cytometry, and electrophoresis. RESULTS: At 100 microM, A(II) reduced survival of both lines by 50% in 12-24 hr, whereas 10 microM A(II) caused a prolonged block of proliferation in both lines, and parallel and complete block of PSA in LNCaP cells. At 10 microM, A(II) caused no major changes in chromatin, morphology or cell cycle distributions, whereas 100 microM drug caused rapid, large-scale cell detachment, nuclear and internucleosomal DNA fragmentation, and hypodiploidy. These effects were also accompanied by dissolution of cellular microtubule arrays. A more potent tubulin assembly-inhibiting congener of A(II), Z-1, 1-dichloro-2-(4-methoxy-phenyl)-3-phenylcyclopropane, slightly more effectively inhibited cell growth, caused little hypodiploidy, but potently and dose-dependently caused G(2)/M accumulation. CONCLUSIONS: These and previous data suggest that the Z-1, 1-dichloro-2,3-diarylcyclo-propanes may be useful in the treatment of human prostate disease.

The osmolyte xylitol reduces the salt concentration of airway surface liquid and may enhance bacterial killing.

The thin layer of airway surface liquid (ASL) contains antimicrobial substances that kill the small numbers of bacteria that are constantly being deposited in the lungs. An increase in ASL salt concentration inhibits the activity of airway antimicrobial factors and may partially explain the pathogenesis of cystic fibrosis (CF). We tested the hypothesis that an osmolyte with a low transepithelial permeability may lower the ASL salt concentration, thereby enhancing innate immunity. We found that the five-carbon sugar xylitol has a low transepithelial permeability, is poorly metabolized by several bacteria, and can lower the ASL salt concentration in both CF and non-CF airway epithelia in vitro. Furthermore, in a double-blind, randomized, crossover study, xylitol sprayed for 4 days into each nostril of normal volunteers significantly decreased the number of nasal coagulase-negative Staphylococcus compared with saline control. Xylitol may be of value in decreasing ASL salt concentration and enhancing the innate antimicrobial defense at the airway surface.

Quorum-sensing signals indicate that cystic fibrosis lungs are infected with bacterial biofilms.

The bacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosa permanently colonizes cystic fibrosis lungs despite aggressive antibiotic treatment. This suggests that P. aeruginosa might exist as biofilms--structured communities of bacteria encased in a self-produced polymeric matrix--in the cystic fibrosis lung. Consistent with this hypothesis, microscopy of cystic fibrosis sputum shows that P. aeruginosa are in biofilm-like structures. P. aeruginosa uses extracellular quorum-sensing signals (extracellular chemical signals that cue cell-density-dependent gene expression) to coordinate biofilm formation. Here we found that cystic fibrosis sputum produces the two principal P. aeruginosa quorum-sensing signals; however, the relative abundance of these signals was opposite to that of the standard P. aeruginosa strain PAO1 in laboratory broth culture. When P. aeruginosa sputum isolates were grown in broth, some showed quorum-sensing signal ratios like those of the laboratory strain. When we grew these isolates and PAO1 in a laboratory biofilm model, the signal ratios were like those in cystic fibrosis sputum. Our data support the hypothesis that P. aeruginosa are in a biofilm in cystic fibrosis sputum. Moreover, quorum-sensing signal profiling of specific P. aeruginosa strains may serve as a biomarker in screens to identify agents that interfere with biofilm development.

Synergistic and additive killing by antimicrobial factors found in human airway surface liquid.

Airway surface liquid contains multiple factors thought to provide a first line of defense against bacteria deposited in the airways. Although the antimicrobial action of individual factors has been studied, less is known about how they work in combination. We examined the combined action of six antimicrobial peptides found in airway surface liquid. The paired combinations of lysozyme-lactoferrin, lysozyme-secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor (SLPI), and lactoferrin-SLPI were synergistic. The triple combination of lysozyme, lactoferrin, and SLPI showed even greater synergy. Other combinations involving the human beta-defensins, LL-37, and tobramycin (often administered to cystic fibrosis patients by inhalation) were additive. Because the airway surface liquid salt concentration may be elevated in cystic fibrosis patients, we examined the effect of salt on the synergistic combinations. As the ionic strength increased, synergistic interactions were lost. Our data suggest that the antibacterial potency of airway surface liquid may be significantly increased by synergistic and additive interactions between antimicrobial factors. These results also suggest that increased salt concentrations that may exist in cystic fibrosis could inhibit airway defenses by diminishing these synergistic interactions.

Contribution of R domain phosphoserines to the function of CFTR studied in Fischer rat thyroid epithelia.

The regulatory domain of cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) regulates channel activity when several serines are phosphorylated by cAMP-dependent protein kinase. To further define the functional role of individual phosphoserines, we studied CFTR containing previously studied and new serine to alanine mutations. We expressed these constructs in Fischer rat thyroid epithelia and measured transepithelial Cl(-) current. Mutation of four in vivo phosphorylation sites, Ser(660), Ser(737), Ser(795), and Ser(813) (S-Quad-A), substantially decreased cAMP-stimulated current, suggesting that these four sites account for most of the phosphorylation-dependent response. Mutation of either Ser(660) or Ser(813) alone significantly decreased current, indicating that these residues play a key role in phosphorylation-dependent stimulation. However, neither Ser(660) nor Ser(813) alone increased current to wild-type levels; both residues were required. Changing Ser(737) to alanine increased current above wild-type levels, suggesting that phosphorylation of Ser(737) may inhibit current in wild-type CFTR. These data help define the functional role of regulatory domain phosphoserines and suggest interactions between individual phosphoserines.

Regulation of CFTR Cl- channel gating by ATP binding and hydrolysis.

Opening and closing of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) Cl(-) channel is regulated by the interaction of ATP with its two cytoplasmic nucleotide-binding domains (NBD). Although ATP hydrolysis by the NBDs is required for normal gating, the influence of ATP binding versus hydrolysis on specific steps in the gating cycle remains uncertain. Earlier work showed that the absence of Mg(2+) prevents hydrolysis. We found that even in the absence of Mg(2+), ATP could support channel activity, albeit at a reduced level compared with the presence of Mg(2+). Application of ATP with a divalent cation, including the poorly hydrolyzed CaATP complex, increased the rate of opening. Moreover, in CFTR variants with mutations that disrupt hydrolysis, ATP alone opened the channel and Mg(2+) further enhanced ATP-dependent opening. These data suggest that ATP alone can open the channel and that divalent cations increase ATP binding. Consistent with this conclusion, when we mutated an aspartate thought to bind Mg(2+), divalent cations failed to increase activity compared with ATP alone. Two observations suggested that divalent cations also stabilize the open state. In wild-type CFTR, CaATP generated a long duration open state, whereas ATP alone did not. With a CFTR variant in which hydrolysis was disrupted, MgATP, but not ATP alone, produced long openings. These results suggest a gating cycle for CFTR in which ATP binding opens the channel and either hydrolysis or dissociation leads to channel closure. In addition, the data suggest that ATP binding and hydrolysis by either NBD can gate the channel.

Differences between cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator and HisP in the interaction with the adenine ring of ATP.

The cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) Cl(-) channel is a member of the ATP-binding cassette transporter family. The most conserved features of this family are the nucleotide-binding domains. As in other members of this family, these domains bind and hydrolyze ATP; in CFTR this opens and closes the channel pore. The recent crystal structures of related bacterial transporters show that an aromatic residue interacts with the adenine ring of ATP to stabilize nucleotide binding. CFTR contains six aromatic residues that are candidates to coordinate the nucleotide base. We mutated each to cysteine and examined the functional consequences. None of the mutations disrupted channel function or the ability to discriminate between ATP, GTP, and CTP. We also applied [2-(triethylammonium)ethyl] methanethiosulfonate to covalently modify the introduced cysteines. The mutant channels CFTR-F429C, F430C, F433C, and F1232C showed no difference from wild-type CFTR, indicating that either the residues were not accessible to modification, or cysteine modification did not affect function. Although modification inactivated CFTR-Y1219C more rapidly than wild-type CFTR, and inactivation of CFTR-F446C was nucleotide-dependent; failure of these mutations to alter gating suggested that Tyr(1219) and Phe(446) were not important for nucleotide binding. The results suggest that ATP binding may not involve the coordination of the adenine ring by an aromatic residue analogous to that in some bacterial transporters. Taken together with earlier work, this study points to a model in which most of the binding energy for ATP is contributed by the phosphate groups.

A functional R domain from cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator is predominantly unstructured in solution.

Phosphorylation of the regulatory (R) domain initiates cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) Cl(-) channel activity. To discover how the function of this domain is determined by its structure, we produced an R domain protein (R8) that spanned residues 708-831 of CFTR. Phosphorylated, but not unphosphorylated, R8 stimulated activity of CFTR channels lacking this domain, indicating that R8 is functional. Unexpectedly, this functional R8 was predominantly random coil, as revealed by CD and limited proteolysis. The CD spectra of both phosphorylated and nonphosphorylated R8 were similar in aqueous buffer. The folding agent trimethylamine N-oxide induced only a small increase in the helical content of nonphosphorylated R8 and even less change in the helical content of phosphorylated R8. These data, indicating that the R domain is predominantly random coil, may explain the seemingly complex way in which phosphorylation regulates CFTR channel activity.