GSK-3ß Inhibition Induced Neuroprotection, Regeneration, and Functional Recovery After Intracerebral Hemorrhagic Stroke.

Hemorrhagic stroke is a devastating disease that lacks effective therapies. In the present investigation, we tested 6-bromoindirubin-3'-oxime (BIO) as a selective glycogen synthase kinase-3ß (GSK-3ß) inhibitor in a mouse model of intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH). ICH was induced by injection of collagenase IV into the striatum of 8- to 10-week-old C57BL/6 mice. BIO (8 µg/kg, IP) was administered following either an acute delivery (0-2 h delay) or a prolonged regimen (every 48 h starting at 3 days post-ICH). At 2 days post-ICH, the acute BIO treatment significantly reduced the hematoma volume. In the perihematoma regions, BIO administration blocked GSK-3ß phosphorylation/activation, increased Bcl-2 and ß-catenin levels, and significantly increased viability of neurons and other cell types. The prolonged BIO regimen maintained a higher level of ß-catenin, upregulated VEGF and BDNF, and promoted neurogenesis and angiogenesis in peri-injury zones at 14 days after ICH. The BIO treatment also promoted proliferation of neural stem cells (NSCs) and migration of nascent DCX+ neuroblasts from the subventricular zone (SVZ) to the lesioned cortex. BIO improved functional outcomes on both the neurological severity score and rotarod tests. The findings of this study corroborate the neuroprotective and regenerative effects of BIO and suggest that the Wnt/GSK-3ß/ß-catenin pathway may be explored for the treatment of acute or chronic ICH.

Regulation of therapeutic hypothermia on inflammatory cytokines, microglia polarization, migration and functional recovery after ischemic stroke in mice.

Stroke is a leading threat to human life and health in the US and around the globe, while very few effective treatments are available for stroke patients. Preclinical and clinical studies have shown that therapeutic hypothermia (TH) is a potential treatment for stroke. Using novel neurotensin receptor 1 (NTR1) agonists, we have demonstrated pharmacologically induced hypothermia and protective effects against brain damages after ischemic stroke, hemorrhage stroke, and traumatic brain injury (TBI) in rodent models. To further characterize the mechanism of TH-induced brain protection, we examined the effect of TH (at ±33°C for 6h) induced by the NTR1 agonist HPI-201 or physical (ice/cold air) cooling on inflammatory responses after ischemic stroke in mice and oxygen glucose deprivation (OGD) in cortical neuronal cultures. Seven days after focal cortical ischemia, microglia activation in the penumbra reached a peak level, which was significantly attenuated by TH treatments commenced 30min after stroke. The TH treatment decreased the expression of M1 type reactive factors including tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-1ß (IL-1ß), IL-12, IL-23, and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) measured by RT-PCR and Western blot analyses. Meanwhile, TH treatments increased the expression of M2 type reactive factors including IL-10, Fizz1, Ym1, and arginase-1. In the ischemic brain and in cortical neuronal/BV2 microglia cultures subjected to OGD, TH attenuated the expression of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) and macrophage inflammatory protein-1α (MIP-1α), two key chemokines in the regulation of microglia activation and infiltration. Consistently, physical cooling during OGD significantly decreased microglia migration 16h after OGD. Finally, TH improved functional recovery at 1, 3, and 7days after stroke. This study reveals the first evidence for hypothermia mediated regulation on inflammatory factor expression, microglia polarization, migration and indicates that the anti-inflammatory effect is an important mechanism underlying the brain protective effects of a TH therapy.

Progesterone protects endothelial cells after cerebrovascular occlusion by decreasing MCP-1- and CXCL1-mediated macrophage infiltration.

The neuroprotective effects of progesterone after ischemic stroke have been established, but the role of progesterone in promoting cerebrovascular repair remains under-explored. Male Sprague-Dawley rats underwent transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (tMCAO) for 90 min followed by reperfusion for 3 days. Progesterone (8 mg/kg/day) was administered intraperitoneally at 1h after initial occlusion followed by subcutaneous injections at 6, 24 and 48 h post-occlusion. Rats were euthanized after 72 h and brain endothelial cell density and macrophage infiltration were evaluated within the cerebral cortex. We also assessed progesterone's ability to induce macrophage migration toward hypoxic/reoxygenated cultured endothelial cells. We found that progesterone treatment post-tMCAO protects ischemic endothelial cells from macrophage infiltration. We further demonstrate that infiltration of monocytes/macrophages can be induced by potent chemotactic factors such as monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) and the chemokine ligand 1 (CXCL1), secreted by hypoxic/reoxygenated endothelial cells. Progesterone blunts secretion of MCP-1 and CXCL1 from endothelial cells after hypoxia/reoxygenation injury and decreases leukocyte infiltration. The treatment protects ischemic endothelial cells from macrophage infiltration and thus preserves vascularization after ischemic injury.

Recombinant tissue plasminogen activator promotes, and progesterone attenuates, microglia/macrophage M1 polarization and recruitment of microglia after MCAO stroke in rats.

BACKGROUND: Tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) is one of the few approved treatments for stroke, but its effects on the phenotype of microglia/macrophages are poorly understood. One of its side effects is an increase in the inflammatory response leading to neuronal cell damage and death in the ischemic cascade after stroke. Injury-induced activated microglia/macrophages can have dual functions as pro-inflammatory (M1) and anti-inflammatory (M2) factors in brain injury and repair. Recent studies show that progesterone (PROG) is a potent anti-inflammatory agent which affects microglia/macrophage expression after brain injury. PURPOSE: We examined the interaction of tPA-induced expression of microglia/macrophage phenotypes and PROG's anti-inflammatory effects. RESULTS: tPA treatment increased the recruitment of microglia/macrophages, the polarity of M1 reactions, the expression of MIP-1α in neurons and capillaries, and the expression of MMP-3 compared to vehicle, and PROG modulated these effects. CONCLUSIONS: PROG treatment attenuates tPA-induced inflammatory alterations in brain capillaries and microglia/macrophages both in vivo and in vitro and thus may be a useful adjunct therapy when tPA is given for stroke.

Progesterone attenuates thrombin-induced endothelial barrier disruption in the brain endothelial cell line bEnd.3: The role of tight junction proteins and the endothelial protein C receptor.

UNLABELLED: This study examines the effects of progesterone on blood-brain barrier (BBB) integrity following thrombin administration. Thrombin is expressed in many diseases which affect neural tissue and is associated with breakdown of the BBB. Progesterone has shown protective effects on the BBB in stroke and traumatic brain injury. METHODS: Mouse brain endothelial (bEnd.3) cells were treated with progesterone (20 µmol/l) for 24h before thrombin administration (60 U/ml). BBB permeability was measured by transendothelial electrical resistance (TEER), because TEER decrease is associated with BBB compromise. Tight junction (TJ) proteins (occludin, claudin-5, and zonula occludens-1) and endothelial protein C receptor (EPCR) were analyzed. RESULTS: Thrombin decreased TEER and progesterone prevented that decrease. TJ proteins and EPCR were also decreased after thrombin treatment and progesterone treatment blocked that effect. CONCLUSION: Progesterone can attenuate thrombin-induced BBB disruption by blocking the degradation of TJ proteins and EPCR in bEnd.3 cells.

Sex-related differences in effects of progesterone following neonatal hypoxic brain injury.

There is no satisfactory therapeutic intervention for neonatal hypoxic-ischemic (HI) encephalopathy. Progesterone is known to be effective in treating traumatic brain injury in adult animals but its effects in neonatal brains have not been reported. Brain injuries were induced by a unilateral common carotid artery ligation plus hypoxia exposure. Progesterone was administered immediately after hypoxia and daily for 5 days at 8 mg/kg, followed by a tapered dose for two days. At six weeks post-injury, lesion size and inflammatory factors were evaluated. Progesterone-treated, HI-injured male animals, but not females, showed significant long-term tissue protection compared to vehicle, suggesting an important sex difference in neuroprotection. Progesterone-treated, HI-injured male rats had fewer activated microglia in the cortex and hippocampus compared to controls. The rats were tested for neurological reflexes, motor asymmetry, and cognitive performance at multiple time points. The injured animals exhibited few detectable motor deficits, suggesting a high level of age- and injury-related neuroplasticity. There were substantial sex differences on several behavioral tests, indicating that immature males and females should be analyzed separately. Progesterone-treated animals showed modest beneficial effects in both sexes compared to vehicle-treated injured animals. Sham animals given progesterone did not behave differently from vehicle-treated sham animals on any measures.

Progesterone in experimental permanent stroke: a dose-response and therapeutic time-window study.

Currently, the only approved treatment for ischaemic stroke is tissue plasminogen activator, a clot-buster. This treatment can have dangerous consequences if not given within the first 4 h after stroke. Our group and others have shown progesterone to be beneficial in preclinical studies of stroke, but a progesterone dose-response and time-window study is lacking. We tested male Sprague-Dawley rats (12 months old) with permanent middle cerebral artery occlusion or sham operations on multiple measures of sensory, motor and cognitive performance. For the dose-response study, animals received intraperitoneal injections of progesterone (8, 16 or 32 mg/kg) at 1 h post-occlusion, and subcutaneous injections at 6 h and then once every 24 h for 7 days. For the time-window study, the optimal dose of progesterone was given starting at 3, 6 or 24 h post-stroke. Behavioural recovery was evaluated at repeated intervals. Rats were killed at 22 days post-stroke and brains extracted for evaluation of infarct volume. Both 8 and 16 mg/kg doses of progesterone produced attenuation of infarct volume compared with the placebo, and improved functional outcomes up to 3 weeks after stroke on locomotor activity, grip strength, sensory neglect, gait impairment, motor coordination and spatial navigation tests. In the time-window study, the progesterone group exhibited substantial neuroprotection as late as 6 h after stroke onset. Compared with placebo, progesterone showed a significant reduction in infarct size with 3- and 6-h delays. Moderate doses (8 and 16 mg/kg) of progesterone reduced infarct size and improved functional deficits in our clinically relevant model of stroke. The 8 mg/kg dose was optimal in improving motor, sensory and memory function, and this effect was observed over a large therapeutic time window. Progesterone shows promise as a potential therapeutic agent and should be examined for safety and efficacy in a clinical trial for ischaemic stroke.

Progesterone attenuates hemorrhagic transformation after delayed tPA treatment in an experimental model of stroke in rats: involvement of the VEGF-MMP pathway.

Tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) is the only FDA-approved treatment for acute stroke, but its use remains limited. Progesterone (PROG) has shown neuroprotection in ischemia, but before clinical testing, we must determine how it affects hemorrhagic transformation in tPA-treated ischemic rats. Male Sprague-Dawley rats underwent middle cerebral artery occlusion with reperfusion at 4.5 hours and tPA treatment at 4.5 hours, or PROG treatment intraperitoneally at 2 hours followed by subcutaneous injection at 6 hours post occlusion. Rats were killed at 24 hours and brains evaluated for cerebral hemorrhage, swelling, blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability, and levels of matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9), vascular endothelial growth factor level (VEGF), and tight junction (TJ) proteins. We also evaluated PROG's efficacy in preventing tPA-induced impairment of transendothelial electrical resistance (TEER) and TJ proteins under hypoxia/reoxygenation in the endothelial cells. Delayed tPA treatment induced significant hemorrhagic conversion and brain swelling. Treatment with PROG plus tPA ameliorated hemorrhage, hemispheric swelling, BBB permeability, MMP-9 induction, and VEGF levels compared with controls. Progesterone treatment significantly prevented tPA-induced decrease in TEER and expression of occludin and claudin-5, and attenuated VEGF levels in culture media subjected to hypoxia. The study concluded that PROG may extend the time window for tPA administration in ischemic stroke and reduce hemorrhagic conversion.