Photosystem I light-harvesting proteins regulate photosynthetic electron transfer and hydrogen production.

Linear electron flow (LEF) and cyclic electron flow (CEF) compete for light-driven electrons transferred from the acceptor side of photosystem I (PSI). Under anoxic conditions, such highly reducing electrons also could be used for hydrogen (H2) production via electron transfer between ferredoxin and hydrogenase in the green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. Partitioning between LEF and CEF is regulated through PROTON-GRADIENT REGULATION5 (PGR5). There is evidence that partitioning of electrons also could be mediated via PSI remodeling processes. This plasticity is linked to the dynamics of PSI-associated light-harvesting proteins (LHCAs) LHCA2 and LHCA9. These two unique light-harvesting proteins are distinct from all other LHCAs because they are loosely bound at the PSAL pole. Here, we investigated photosynthetic electron transfer and H2 production in single, double, and triple mutants deficient in PGR5, LHCA2, and LHCA9. Our data indicate that lhca2 and lhca9 mutants are efficient in photosynthetic electron transfer, that LHCA2 impacts the pgr5 phenotype, and that pgr5/lhca2 is a potent H2 photo-producer. In addition, pgr5/lhca2 and pgr5/lhca9 mutants displayed substantially different H2 photo-production kinetics. This indicates that the absence of LHCA2 or LHCA9 impacts H2 photo-production independently, despite both being attached at the PSAL pole, pointing to distinct regulatory capacities.

Protection of Oxygen-Sensitive Enzymes by Peptide Hydrogel.

Molecular oxygen (O2) is a highly reactive oxidizing agent and is harmful to many biological and industrial systems. Although O2 often interacts via metals or reducing agents, a binding mechanism involving an organic supramolecular structure has not been described to date. In this work, the prominent dipeptide hydrogelator fluorenylmethyloxycarbonyl-diphenylalanine is shown to encage O2 and significantly limit its diffusion and penetration through the hydrogel. Molecular dynamics simulations suggested that the O2 binding mechanism is governed by pockets formed between the aromatic rings in the supramolecular structure of the gel, which bind O2 through hydrophobic interactions. This phenomenon is harnessed to maintain the activity of the O2-hypersensitive enzyme [FeFe]-hydrogenase, which holds promising potential for utilizing hydrogen gas for sustainable energy applications. Hydrogenase encapsulation within the gel allows hydrogen production following exposure to ambient O2. This phenomenon may lead to utilization of this low molecular weight gelator in a wide range of O2-sensitive applications.

Killing cancer cells by targeted drug-carrying phage nanomedicines.

BACKGROUND: Systemic administration of chemotherapeutic agents, in addition to its anti-tumor benefits, results in indiscriminate drug distribution and severe toxicity. This shortcoming may be overcome by targeted drug-carrying platforms that ferry the drug to the tumor site while limiting exposure to non-target tissues and organs. RESULTS: We present a new form of targeted anti-cancer therapy in the form of targeted drug-carrying phage nanoparticles. Our approach is based on genetically-modified and chemically manipulated filamentous bacteriophages. The genetic manipulation endows the phages with the ability to display a host-specificity-conferring ligand. The phages are loaded with a large payload of a cytotoxic drug by chemical conjugation. In the presented examples we used anti ErbB2 and anti ERGR antibodies as targeting moieties, the drug hygromycin conjugated to the phages by a covalent amide bond, or the drug doxorubicin conjugated to genetically-engineered cathepsin-B sites on the phage coat. We show that targeting of phage nanomedicines via specific antibodies to receptors on cancer cell membranes results in endocytosis, intracellular degradation, and drug release, resulting in growth inhibition of the target cells in vitro with a potentiation factor of >1000 over the corresponding free drugs. CONCLUSION: The results of the proof-of concept study presented here reveal important features regarding the potential of filamentous phages to serve as drug-delivery platform, on the affect of drug solubility or hydrophobicity on the target specificity of the platform and on the effect of drug release mechanism on the potency of the platform. These results define targeted drug-carrying filamentous phage nanoparticles as a unique type of antibody-drug conjugates.

Targeted anti bacterial therapy.

The increasing development of bacterial resistance to traditional antibiotics has reached alarming levels, thus necessitating a strong need to develop new antimicrobial agents. These new antimicrobials should possess novel modes of action and/or different cellular targets compared with the existing antibiotics. As a result, new classes of compounds designed to avoid defined resistance mechanisms are undergoing pre clinical and clinical evaluation. Microbial and phage genomic sequencing are now being used to find previously unidentified genes and their corresponding proteins. In both traditional and newly developed antibiotics, the target selectivity lies in the drug itself, in its ability to affect a mechanism that is unique to prokaryotes. As a result, a vast number of potent agents that, due to low selectivity, in addition to the pathogen also affect the eukaryote host have been excluded from use as therapeutics. Such compounds could be re-considered for clinical use if applied as part of a targeted delivery platform where the drug selectivity is replaced by target-selectivity borne by the targeting moiety. With a large number of antibodies and antibody-drug conjugates already approved or near approval as cancer therapeutics, targeted therapy is becoming increasingly attractive and additional potential targeting moieties that are non-antibody based, such as peptides, non-antibody ligand-binding proteins and even carbohydrates are receiving increasing attention. Still, targeted therapy is mostly focused on cancer, with targeted anti bacterial therapies being suggested only very recently. This review will focus in the various methods of antimicrobial targeting, by systemic and local application of targeted antimicrobial substances.

Targeted drug-carrying bacteriophages as antibacterial nanomedicines.

While the resistance of bacteria to traditional antibiotics is a major public health concern, the use of extremely potent antibacterial agents is limited by their lack of selectivity. As in cancer therapy, antibacterial targeted therapy could provide an opportunity to reintroduce toxic substances to the antibacterial arsenal. A desirable targeted antibacterial agent should combine binding specificity, a large drug payload per binding event, and a programmed drug release mechanism. Recently, we presented a novel application of filamentous bacteriophages as targeted drug carriers that could partially inhibit the growth of Staphylococcus aureus bacteria. This partial success was due to limitations of drug-loading capacity that resulted from the hydrophobicity of the drug. Here we present a novel drug conjugation chemistry which is based on connecting hydrophobic drugs to the phage via aminoglycoside antibiotics that serve as solubility-enhancing branched linkers. This new formulation allowed a significantly larger drug-carrying capacity of the phages, resulting in a drastic improvement in their performance as targeted drug-carrying nanoparticles. As an example for a potential systemic use for potent agents that are limited for topical use, we present antibody-targeted phage nanoparticles that carry a large payload of the hemolytic antibiotic chloramphenicol connected through the aminoglycoside neomycin. We demonstrate complete growth inhibition toward the pathogens Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pyogenes, and Escherichia coli with an improvement in potency by a factor of approximately 20,000 compared to the free drug.

Inhibition of amyloid precursor protein processing by beta-secretase through site-directed antibodies.

Amyloid-beta peptide (AbetaP) that accumulates in the Alzheimer's diseased brain is derived from proteolytic processing of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) by means of beta- and gamma-secretases. The beta-secretase APP cleaving enzyme (BACE), which generates the N terminus of AbetaP, has become a target of intense research aimed at blocking the enzyme activity, thus reducing AbetaP and, subsequently, plaque formation. The search for specific inhibitors of beta-secretase activity as a possible treatment for Alzheimer's disease intensified with the discovery that BACE may be involved in processing other non-APP substrates. The presence of the APP-BACE complex in early endosomes highlights the cell surface as a potential therapeutic target, suggesting that interference in APP-BACE interaction at the cell surface may affect amyloid-beta production. We present here a unique approach to inhibit AbetaP production by means of antibodies against the beta-secretase cleavage site of APP. These antibodies were found to bind human APP overexpressed by CHO cells, and the formed immunocomplex was visualized in the early endosomes. Indeed, blocking of the beta-secretase site by these antibodies interfered with BACE activity and inhibited both intracellular and extracellular AbetaP formation in these cells.