Assessment of false transmitters as treatments for nerve agent poisoning.

Nerve agents inhibit acetylcholinesterase (AChE), leading to a build-up of acetylcholine (ACh) and overstimulation at cholinergic synapses. Current post-exposure nerve agent treatment includes atropine to treat overstimulation at muscarinic synapses, a benzodiazepine anti-convulsant, and an oxime to restore the function of AChE. Aside from the oxime, the components do not act directly to reduce the overstimulation at nicotinic synapses. The false transmitters acetylmonoethylcholine (AMECh) and acetyldiethylcholine (ADECh) are analogs of ACh, synthesised similarly at synapses. AMECh and ADECh are partial agonists, with reduced activity compared to ACh, so it was hypothesised the false transmitters could reduce overstimulation. Synthetic routes to AMECh and ADECh, and their precursors, monoethylcholine (MECh) and diethylcholine (DECh), were devised, allowing them to be produced easily on a laboratory-scale. The mechanism of action of the false transmitters was investigated in vitro. AMECh acted as a partial agonist at human muscarinic (M1 and M3) and muscle-type nicotinic receptors, and ADECh was a partial agonist only at certain muscarinic subtypes. Their precursors acted as antagonists at muscle-type nicotinic, but not muscarinic receptors. Administration of MECh and DECh improved neuromuscular function in the soman-exposed guinea-pig hemi-diaphragm preparation. False transmitters may therefore help reduce nerve agent induced overstimulation at cholinergic synapses.

Synthesis of Novel Nicotinic Ligands with Multimodal Action: Targeting Acetylcholine α4ß2, Dopamine and Serotonin Transporters.

Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs), serotonin transporters (SERT) and dopamine transporters (DAT) represent targets for the development of novel nicotinic derivatives acting as multiligands associated with different health conditions, such as depressive, anxiety and addiction disorders. In the present work, a series of functionalized esters structurally related to acetylcholine and nicotine were synthesized and pharmacologically assayed with respect to these targets. The synthesized compounds were studied in radioligand binding assays at α4ß2 nAChR, h-SERT and h-DAT. SERT experiments showed not radioligand [3H]-paroxetine displacement, but rather an increase in the radioligand binding percentage at the central binding site was observed. Compound 20 showed Ki values of 1.008 ± 0.230 µM for h-DAT and 0.031 ± 0.006 µM for α4ß2 nAChR, and [3H]-paroxetine binding of 191.50% in h-SERT displacement studies, being the only compound displaying triple affinity. Compound 21 displayed Ki values of 0.113 ± 0.037 µM for α4ß2 nAChR and 0.075 ± 0.009 µM for h-DAT acting as a dual ligand. Molecular docking studies on homology models of α4ß2 nAChR, h-DAT and h-SERT suggested potential interactions among the compounds and agonist binding site at the α4/ß2 subunit interfaces of α4ß2 nAChR, central binding site of h-DAT and allosteric modulator effect in h-SERT.

Polyester with Pendent Acetylcholine-Mimicking Functionalities Promotes Neurite Growth.

Successful regeneration of nerves can benefit from biomaterials that provide a supportive biochemical and mechanical environment while also degrading with controlled inflammation and minimal scar formation. Herein, we report a neuroactive polymer functionalized by covalent attachment of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (Ach). The polymer was readily synthesized in two steps from poly(sebacoyl diglyceride) (PSeD), which previously demonstrated biocompatibility and biodegradation in vivo. Distinct from prior acetylcholine-biomimetic polymers, PSeD-Ach contains both quaternary ammonium and free acetyl moieties, closely resembling native acetylcholine structure. The polymer structure was confirmed via (1)H nuclear magnetic resonance and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy. Hydrophilicity, charge, and thermal properties of PSeD-Ach were determined by tensiometer, zetasizer, differential scanning calorimetry, and thermal gravimetric analysis, respectively. PC12 cells exhibited the greatest proliferation and neurite outgrowth on PSeD-Ach and laminin substrates, with no significant difference between these groups. PSeD-Ach yielded much longer neurite outgrowth than the control polymer containing ammonium but no the acetyl group, confirming the importance of the entire acetylcholine-like moiety. Furthermore, PSeD-Ach supports adhesion of primary rat dorsal root ganglions and subsequent neurite sprouting and extension. The sprouting rate is comparable to the best conditions from previous report. Our findings are significant in that they were obtained with acetylcholine-like functionalities in 100% repeating units, a condition shown to yield significant toxicity in prior publications. Moreover, PSeD-Ach exhibited favorable mechanical and degradation properties for nerve tissue engineering application. Humidified PSeD-Ach had an elastic modulus of 76.9 kPa, close to native neural tissue, and could well recover from cyclic dynamic compression. PSeD-Ach showed a gradual in vitro degradation under physiologic conditions with a mass loss of 60% within 4 weeks. Overall, this simple and versatile synthesis provides a useful tool to produce biomaterials for creating the appropriate stimulatory environment for nerve regeneration.

Synthesis of poly(ester-carbonate) with a pendant acetylcholine analog for promoting neurite growth.

The modification of biodegradable polyesters with bioactive molecules has become an important strategy for controlling neuron adhesion and neurite outgrowth in nerve regeneration. In this study we report a biodegradable poly(ester-carbonate) with a pendant acetylcholine analog, which a neurotransmitter for the enhancement of neuron adhesion and outgrowth. The acetylcholine-functionalized poly(ester-carbonate) (Ach-P(LA-ClTMC)) was prepared by copolymerizing l-lactide (LA) and 5-methyl-5-chloroethoxycarbonyl trimethylene carbonate (ClTMC), followed by quaternization with trimethylamine. The acetylcholine analog content could be modulated by changing the molar feeding fraction of ClTMC. The incorporation of the acetylcholine analog improved the hydrophilicity of the films, but the acetylcholine analog content did not significantly influence the surface morphology of the acetylcholine-functionalized films. The results of PC12 cell culture showed that the acetylcholine analog promoted cell viability and neurite outgrowth in a concentration-dependent manner. The longest length of neurite and the percentage of cells bearing neurites were obtained on the Ach-P(LA-ClTMC)-10 film. All the results indicate that the integration of the acetylcholine analog at an appropriate fraction could be an effective strategy for optimizing the existing biodegradable polyesters for nerve regeneration applications.

A hyperpolarized choline molecular probe for monitoring acetylcholine synthesis.

Choline as a reporter molecule has been investigated by in vivo magnetic resonance for almost three decades. Accumulation of choline metabolites (mainly the phosphorylated forms) had been observed in malignancy in preclinical models, ex-vivo, in vivo and in patients. The combined choline metabolite signal appears in (1) H-MRS of the brain and its relative intensity had been used as a diagnostic factor in various conditions. The advent of spin hyperpolarization methods for in vivo use has raised interest in the ability to follow the physiological metabolism of choline into acetylcholine in the brain. Here we present a stable-isotope labeled choline analog, [1,1,2,2-D(4) ,2-(13) C]choline chloride, that is suitable for this purpose. In this analog, the (13) C position showed 24% polarization in the liquid state, following DNP hyperpolarization. This nucleus also showed a long T(1) (35 s) at 11.8 T and 25 °C, which is a prerequisite for hyperpolarized studies. The chemical shift of this (13) C position differentiates choline and acetylcholine from each other and from the other water-soluble choline metabolites, namely phosphocholine and betaine. Enzymatic studies using an acetyltransferase enzyme showed the synthesis of the deuterated-acetylcholine form at thermal equilibrium conditions and in a hyperpolarized state. Analysis using a comprehensive model showed that the T(1) of the formed hyperpolarized [1,1,2,2-D(4) ,2-(13) C]acetylcholine was 34 s at 14.1 T and 37 °C. We conclude that [1,1,2,2-D(4) ,2-(13) C]choline chloride is a promising new molecular probe for hyperpolarized metabolic studies and discuss the factors related to its possible use in vivo.