Pulvinar quantitative susceptibility mapping predicts visual hallucinations post-deep brain stimulation in Parkinson's disease.

PURPOSE: We have reported the relationship between low pulvinar nuclei (PN) intensity in susceptibility-weighted imaging and the appearance of visual hallucinations and cognitive function. The aim of the study was to examine the changes in the quantitative susceptibility mapping (QSM) in patients with Parkinson's disease (PD) who underwent deep brain stimulation (DBS) and verify whether the PN susceptibility value (SV) on QSM can predict visual hallucination and cognitive changes after DBS. METHODS: This study examined 24 patients with PD who underwent DBS along with QSM imaging on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). All MRIs were performed within 3 months before surgery. The PN SV was further assessed based on the QSM. Then, associations were examined among cognitive changes, hallucination, and PN SV. The cognitive function of the patient was compared immediately before surgery and at 1 year postoperatively. RESULTS: Visual hallucinations were observed in seven patients during the follow-up period. The PN SV was ≥0.045 ppm in nine patients with PD, and six of them had visual hallucinations, whereas only one of 15 patients with PD with SV of <0.045 ppm had visual hallucinations (Fisher's exact test, p = .0037). CONCLUSIONS: The SV of >0.045 ppm at the PN in QSM in patients with PD may provide useful information suggesting visual hallucination and cognitive deterioration after DBS treatment.

Examining transcranial random noise stimulation as an add-on treatment for persistent symptoms in schizophrenia (STIM'Zo): a study protocol for a multicentre, double-blind, randomized sham-controlled clinical trial.

BACKGROUND: One out of three patients with schizophrenia failed to respond adequately to antipsychotics and continue to experience debilitating symptoms such as auditory hallucinations and negative symptoms. The development of additional therapeutic approaches for these persistent symptoms constitutes a major goal for patients. Here, we develop a randomized-controlled trial testing the efficacy of high-frequency transcranial random noise stimulation (hf-tRNS) for the treatment of resistant/persistent symptoms of schizophrenia in patients with various profiles of symptoms, cognitive deficits and illness duration. We also aim to investigate the biological and cognitive effects of hf-tRNS and to identify the predictors of clinical response. METHODS: In a randomized, double-blind, 2-arm parallel-group, controlled, multicentre study, 144 patients with schizophrenia and persistent symptoms despite the prescription of at least one antipsychotic treatment will be randomly allocated to receive either active (n = 72) or sham (n = 72) hf-tRNS. hf-tRNS (100-500 Hz) will be delivered for 20 min with a current intensity of 2 mA and a 1-mA offset twice a day on 5 consecutive weekdays. The anode will be placed over the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and the cathode over the left temporoparietal junction. Patients' symptoms will be assessed prior to hf-tRNS (baseline), after the 10 sessions, and at 1-, 3- and 6-month follow-up. The primary outcome will be the number of responders defined as a reduction of at least 25% from the baseline scores on the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS) after the 10 sessions. Secondary outcomes will include brain activity and connectivity, source monitoring performances, social cognition, other clinical (including auditory hallucinations) and biological variables, and attitude toward treatment. DISCUSSION: The results of this trial will constitute a first step toward establishing the usefulness of hf-tRNS in schizophrenia whatever the stage of the illness and the level of treatment resistance. We hypothesize a long-lasting effect of active hf-tRNS on the severity of schizophrenia symptoms as compared to sham. This trial will also have implications for the use of hf-tRNS as a preventive intervention of relapse in patients with schizophrenia. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT02744989. Prospectively registered on 20 April 2016.

tDCS for auditory verbal hallucinations in a case of schizophrenia and left frontal lesion: efield simulation and clinical results.

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) has been explored for treatment of several neuropsychiatric disorders. For tDCS use in structural brain lesions there is some evidence from motor stroke rehabilitation and post-stroke depression. Here we report the application of tDCS in a woman previously diagnosed with schizophrenia presenting refractory auditory verbal hallucinations and left prefrontal tissue lesion. Treatment with 20 left fronto-temporal tDCS had no effect on psychiatric symptoms and neuropsychological evaluation. An ex-post electric field simulation and calculation of dorsolateral prefrontal cortex activation showed lower activation in this patient compared to a matched non-lesioned schizophrenia, and healthy control brain.

Bilateral Deep Brain Stimulation of the Nucleus Basalis of Meynert for Parkinson Disease Dementia: A Randomized Clinical Trial.

Importance: Deep brain stimulation of the nucleus basalis of Meynert (NBM DBS) has been proposed as a treatment option for Parkinson disease dementia. Objective: To evaluate the safety and potential symptomatic effects of NBM DBS in patients with Parkinson disease dementia. Design, Setting, and Participants: A randomized, double-blind, crossover clinical trial evaluated the results of 6 patients with Parkinson disease dementia who were treated with NBM DBS at a neurosurgical referral center in the United Kingdom from October 26, 2012, to July 31, 2015. Eligible patients met the diagnostic criteria for Parkinson disease dementia, had motor fluctuations, were appropriate surgical candidates aside from the coexistence of dementia, were age 35 to 80 years, were able to give informed consent, had a Mini-Mental State Examination score of 21 to 26, had minimal atrophy seen on results of brain magnetic resonance imaging, and lived at home with a caregiver-informant. Interventions: After surgery, patients were assigned to receive either active stimulation (bilateral, low-frequency [20 Hz] NBM DBS) or sham stimulation for 6 weeks, followed by the opposite condition for 6 weeks. Main Outcomes and Measures: The primary outcome was the difference in scores on each item of an abbreviated cognitive battery (California Verbal Learning Test-II, Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-III digit span, verbal fluency, Posner covert attention test, and simple and choice reaction times) between the 2 conditions. Secondary outcomes were exploratory and included differences in scores on standardized measurements of cognitive, psychiatric, and motor symptoms and resting state functional magnetic resonance imaging. Results: Surgery and stimulation were well tolerated by all 6 patients (all men; mean [SD] age, 65.2 [10.7] years), with no serious adverse events during the trial. No consistent improvements were observed in the primary cognitive outcomes or in results of resting state functional magnetic resonance imaging. An improvement in scores on the Neuropsychiatric Inventory was observed with NBM DBS (8.5 points [range, 4-26 points]) compared with sham stimulation (12 points [range, 8-38 points]; median difference, 5 points; 95% CI, 2.5-8.5 points; P = .03) and the preoperative baseline (13 points [range, 5-25 points]; median difference, 2 points; 95% CI, -8 to 5.5 points; P = .69). Conclusions and Relevance: Low-frequency NBM DBS was safely conducted in patients with Parkinson disease dementia; however, no improvements were observed in the primary cognitive outcomes. Further studies may be warranted to explore its potential to improve troublesome neuropsychiatric symptoms. Trial Registration: clinicaltrials.gov Identifier: NCT01701544.

O grupo de ouvidores de vozes: dispositivo de cuidado em saúde mental / El grupo de oyentes de voces: dispositivo de cuidado de la salud mental / The group of voice hearers: mental health care device

RESUMO. A alucinação auditiva é um fenômeno que participa da vida de muitas pessoas que fazem tratamento no sistema público de saúde mental de nosso país. No cotidiano de um Centro de Atenção Psicossocial de uma capital brasileira, ouvidores de vozes relatavam com frequência que continuavam sofrendo em função de experiências alucinatórias, mesmo seguindo o tratamento prescrito pela equipe de saúde. Considerando esse problema, foi criado no local um grupo voltado para a lida com o fenômeno. Este artigo teve como objetivo analisar experiências desse grupo. Para isso, utilizou-se o método qualitativo, o qual envolveu o registro de 62 sessões sob a forma de diário de campo, e a análise do corpus. A organização dos dados se deu em três espectros temporais estruturantes de (psico)terapias de grupo em geral: "apresentação", "trocas de experiências", e "fechamento"; além de um aspecto dinâmico, denominado de "manejo terapêutico". A apresentação promoveu a ambientação dos participantes e possibilitou o surgimento de temas importantes, os quais foram trabalhados no decorrer da sessão. Ao trocarem experiências, os integrantes conseguiram compreender algumas dinâmicas relativas às vozes, e houve a promoção de determinados fatores terapêuticos. O manejo serviu para alinhavar os espectros temporais e garantir a fluidez da atividade. Recomenda-se a adoção de grupos com esse foco e formato nos serviços de saúde mental, considerando que eles ampliam a capacidade de cuidado.

RESUMEN. La alucinación auditiva es un fenómeno que forma parte de la vida de muchas personas que hacen tratamiento en el sistema público de salud mental de nuestro país. En el cotidiano de un Centro de Atención Psicosocial de una capital brasileña, oyentes de voces relataban con frecuencia que seguían sufriendo en función de experiencias alucinatorias, aun siguiendo el tratamiento prescrito por el equipo de salud. Considerando este problema, se creó un grupo orientado a la lectura del fenómeno. En este artículo se tuvo como objetivo analizar experiencias de ese grupo. Para ello, se utilizó el método cualitativo, el cual involucró el registro de sesenta y dos sesiones en forma de diario de campo, y el análisis del corpus. La organización de los datos se dio en tres espectros temporales estructurantes de (psico)terapias de grupo en general: "presentación", "intercambios de experiencias", y "cierre"; además de un aspecto dinámico, denominado "manejo terapéutico". La presentación promovió la ambientación de los participantes y posibilitó el surgimiento de temas importantes, los cuales fueron trabajados en el transcurso de la sesión. Al intercambiar experiencias, los integrantes lograron comprender algunas dinámicas relativas a las voces, y hubo la promoción de determinados factores terapéuticos. El manejo sirvió para alinear los espectros y garantizar la fluidez de la actividad. Se recomienda la adopción de grupos con ese foco y formato en los servicios de salud mental, considerando que ellos amplían la capacidad de cuidado.

ABSTRACT. Auditory hallucination is a phenomenon that is part of the lives of many people who are treated in the public mental health system of our country. In the daily life of a Psychosocial Care Center in a Brazilian capital, voice hearers frequently reported that they continued to suffer from hallucinatory experiences, even following the treatment prescribed by the health team. Considering this problem, a group was set up to deal with the phenomenon. This article aimed to analyze the experiences of this group. For this, the qualitative method was used, which involved the registration of sixty-two sessions in the form of a field diary, and the analysis of the corpus. The organization of the data occurred in three temporal spectra that structure group (psycho)therapies in general: "presentation", "exchanges of experiences", and "closure"; besides a dynamic aspect, called "therapeutic management". The presentation promoted the setting of the participants and allowed the emergence of important themes, which were worked on during the session. By exchanging experiences, the members were able to understand some dynamics related to voices, and there was the promotion of certain therapeutic factors. The management served to tie the spectra together and ensured the fluidity of the activity. It is recommended the adoption of groups with this focus and format in mental health services, considering that they increase the capacity of care.

Opioid-induced Hallucinations: A Review of the Literature, Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, and Treatment.

Despite their association with multiple adverse effects, opioid prescription continues to increase. Opioid-induced hallucination is an uncommon yet significant adverse effect of opioid treatment. The practitioner may encounter patient reluctance to volunteer the occurrence of this phenomenon because of fears of being judged mentally unsound. The majority of the literature concerning opioid-induced hallucinations arises from treatment during end-of-life care and cancer pain. Because the rate of opioid prescriptions continues to increase in the population, the rate of opioid-associated hallucinations may also conceivably increase. With a forecasted increase in the patient-to-physician ratio, opioid therapy is predicted to be provided by practitioners of varying backgrounds and medical specialties. Hence, knowledge of the pharmacology and potential adverse effects of these agents is required. This review seeks to increase awareness of this potential complication through a discussion of the literature, potential mechanisms of action, diagnosis, and treatment strategies.

Impact of antipsychotic medication on transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) effects in schizophrenia patients.

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) has generated interest as a treatment modality for schizophrenia. Dopamine, a critical pathogenetic link in schizophrenia, is also known to influence tDCS effects. We evaluated the influence of antipsychotic drug type (as defined by dopamine D2 receptor affinity) on the impact of tDCS in schizophrenia. DSM-IV-TR-diagnosed schizophrenia patients [N=36] with persistent auditory hallucinations despite adequate antipsychotic treatment were administered add-on tDCS. Patients were divided into three groups based on the antipsychotic's affinity to D2 receptors. An auditory hallucinations score (AHS) was measured using the auditory hallucinations subscale of the Psychotic Symptom Rating Scales (PSYRATS). Add-on tDCS resulted in a significant reduction inAHS. Antipsychotic drug type had a significant effect on AHS reduction. Patients treated with high affinity antipsychotics showed significantly lesser improvement compared to patients on low affinity antipsychotics or a mixture of the two. Furthermore, a significant sex-by-group interaction occurred; type of medication had an impact on tDCS effects only in women. Improvement differences could be due to the larger availability of the dopamine receptor system in patients taking antipsychotics with low D2 affinity. Sex-specific differences suggest potential estrogen-mediated effects. This study reports a first-time observation on the clinical utility of antipsychotic drug type in predicting tDCS effects in schizophrenia.

Effects of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) on cognition, symptoms, and smoking in schizophrenia: A randomized controlled study.

Schizophrenia is characterized by cognitive deficits which persist after acute symptoms have been treated or resolved. Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) has been reported to improve cognition and reduce smoking craving in healthy subjects but has not been as carefully evaluated in a randomized controlled study for these effects in schizophrenia. We conducted a randomized double-blind, sham-controlled study of the effects of 5 sessions of tDCS (2 milliamps for 20minutes) on cognition, psychiatric symptoms, and smoking and cigarette craving in 37 outpatients with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder who were current smokers. Thirty subjects provided evaluable data on the MATRICS Consensus Cognitive Battery (MCCB), with the primary outcome measure, the MCCB Composite score. Active compared to sham tDCS subjects showed significant improvements after the fifth tDCS session in MCCB Composite score (p=0.008) and on the MCCB Working Memory (p=0.002) and Attention-Vigilance (p=0.027) domain scores, with large effect sizes. MCCB Composite and Working Memory domain scores remained significant at Benjamini-Hochberg corrected significance levels (α=0.05). There were no statistically significant effects on secondary outcome measures of psychiatric symptoms (PANSS scores), hallucinations, cigarette craving, or cigarettes smoked. The positive effects of tDCS on cognitive performance suggest a potential efficacious treatment for cognitive deficits in partially recovered chronic schizophrenia outpatients that should be further investigated.

The mind with a radio of its own: a case report and review of the literature on the treatment of musical hallucinations.

Musical hallucinations (MH) have been labeled Oliver Sacks syndrome, and in the majority of cases, they occur in the context of a hearing loss. In these instances, they have been described as auditory Charles Bonnet syndrome because they are thought to represent a cortical release phenomenon. Patients with MH tend to have intact reality testing, and as such, the condition may also be described as musical hallucinosis. The temporal course of MH is variable, but given that they may improve or remit with time, education on their benign nature is often sufficient. MH also may improve when hearing loss is reversed. The use of ambient noise potentially ameliorates mild to moderate MH; however, where this is insufficient, somatic treatments may be considered. Case reports have documented successful use of low-dose antiepileptics, atypical antipsychotics and donepezil. We present a case of a 52-year-old man who received only partial relief from serial treatment with several psychotropic agents. He developed major depression with suicidal ideation in the context of persistent, intrusive MH that were refractory to several medication trials, and whereas a course of electroconvulsive therapy led to remission of depressive and suicidal symptoms, it provided only transient relief of his MH. In this article, we also provide a review of the literature on the neurobiology and treatment of MH.

A randomised controlled trial of acceptance-based cognitive behavioural therapy for command hallucinations in psychotic disorders.

Command hallucinations represent a special problem for the clinical management of psychosis. While compliance with both non-harmful and harmful commands can be problematic, sometimes in the extreme, active efforts to resist commands may also contribute to their malignancy. Previous research suggests Cognitive Behaviour Therapy (CBT) to be a useful treatment for reducing compliance with harmful command hallucinations. The purpose of this trial was to evaluate whether CBT augmented with acceptance-based strategies from Acceptance and Commitment Therapy could more broadly reduce the negative impact of command hallucinations. Forty-three participants with problematic command hallucinations were randomized to receive 15 sessions of the intervention "TORCH" (Treatment of Resistant Command Hallucinations) or the control, Befriending, then followed up for 6 months. A sub-sample of 17 participants was randomized to a waitlist control before being allocated to TORCH or Befriending. Participants engaged equally well with both treatments. Despite TORCH participants subjectively reporting greater improvement in command hallucinations compared to Befriending participants, the study found no significant group differences in primary and secondary outcome measures based on blinded assessment data. Within-group analyses and comparisons between the combined treatments and waitlist suggested, however, that both treatments were beneficial with a differential pattern of outcomes observed across the two conditions.

[Long-term consequences of postoperative delirium]. / Langzeitfolgen eines postoperativen Delirs.

A patient reported anxiety and sleeping problems 9 months after reconstruction of the anterior floor of the mouth following tumor surgery. These symptoms had been initiated by a postoperative delirium with hallucinations, which had not been detected during its occurrence. One session of psychotherapy 9 months later reduced the symptoms. Patients in intensive care units should be asked and informed about delirium symptoms. This might prevent long-term psychological distress.

Parkinson's disease progression at 30 years: a study of subthalamic deep brain-stimulated patients.

Clinical findings in Parkinson's disease suggest that most patients progressively develop disabling non-levodopa-responsive symptoms during the course of the disease. Nevertheless, several heterogeneous factors, such as clinical phenotype, age at onset and genetic aspects may influence the long-term clinical picture. In order to investigate the main features of long-term Parkinson's disease progression, we studied a cohort of 19 subjects treated with subthalamic nucleus deep brain stimulation after >20 years of disease, reporting clinical and neuropsychological data up to a mean of 30 years from disease onset. This group of patients was characterized by an early onset of disease, with a mean age of 38.63 years at Parkinson's disease onset, which was significantly lower than in the other long-term subthalamic nucleus deep brain stimulation follow-up cohorts reported in the literature. All subjects were regularly evaluated by a complete Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale, a battery of neuropsychological tests and a clinical interview, intended to assess the rate of non-levodopa-responsive symptom progression. Clinical data were available for all patients at presurgical baseline and at 1, 3 and 5 years from the subthalamic nucleus deep brain stimulation surgical procedure, while follow-up data after >7 years were additionally reported in a subgroup of 14 patients. The clinical and neuropsychological performance progressively worsened during the course of follow-up; 64% of patients gradually developed falls, 86% dysphagia, 57% urinary incontinence and 43% dementia. A progressive worsening of motor symptoms was observed both in 'medication-ON' condition and in 'stimulation-ON' condition, with a parallel reduction in the synergistic effect of 'medication-ON/stimulation-ON' condition. Neuropsychological data also showed a gradual decline in the performances of all main cognitive domains, with an initial involvement of executive functions, followed by the impairment of language, reasoning and memory. Thirty years after the disease onset, most patients presented non-levodopa-responsive symptoms, although the effect of both subthalamic nucleus deep brain stimulation and dopaminergic therapies still showed significant efficacy on the main disease cardinal features. Nevertheless, compared with other subthalamic nucleus deep brain stimulation follow-up studies, which included patients with a shorter disease duration at the time of surgery, a higher prevalence of axial and non-levodopa-responsive symptoms was observed in the long-term evaluations, confirming that several complex aspects underlie the development of non-motor symptoms and other features of Parkinson's disease progression, even in patients with an early disease onset and a prior long-lasting response to dopaminergic therapies.

Subthalamic nucleus stimulation for Parkinson disease with severe medication-induced hallucinations or delusions.

OBJECT: Subthalamic nucleus deep brain stimulation (STN DBS) improves cardinal motor symptoms of Parkinson disease (PD) and reduces antiparkinsonian medication. Therefore, STN DBS seems to be well indicated for patients suffering from medication-induced psychotic symptoms. However, there are few available data dealing with the effect of STN DBS in this kind of patient. The authors studied the effect of STN DBS in patients with PD and severe medication-induced hallucinations or delusions. METHODS: The authors retrospectively reviewed the clinical course of 10 patients who suffered from severe medication-induced hallucinations or delusions and underwent bilateral STN DBS. Patients whose preoperative thought disorder score (Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale Part I, item 2) was 3 or more were enrolled in this study. All patients underwent cognitive function examination and brain perfusion SPECT preoperatively to exclude dementia with Lewy bodies. RESULTS: Subthalamic nucleus DBS yielded significant improvement of motor function in all patients. In 8 patients, psychotic symptoms completely disappeared with significant reduction of dopaminergic medication. In 2 patients, hallucinations and delusions deteriorated immediately after surgery despite complete withdrawal of antiparkinsonian medication. However, these psychotic symptoms completely disappeared after a few months with administration of antipsychotics, and no recurrence was observed afterward in either patient. CONCLUSIONS: Subthalamic nucleus DBS is a good treatment option for patients with PD who are suffering severe medication-induced hallucinations or delusion. However, vigilance is needed, because temporary deterioration of psychotic symptoms may occur after surgery.

[Improvement of peduncular hallucinosis by surgical resection and carbamazepin administration in a young patient with pineocytoma].

Peduncular hallucinosis is a rare phenomenon characterized by visual hallucination consisting of vivid, colored image of people, animals, scenes or geometric patterns. In most of the cases the hallucination is accompanied by sleeping disorder, and is by the patient recognized as not being real. It can be observed mainly in patients with thalamic/midbrain vascular disease, and is less frequently seen in brain stem tumor. The damage of the ascending reticular activating system by brain stem compression causing dream activity releasing what is normally suppressed during wakefulness is thought to be the mechanism of peduncular hallucinosis. The authors report a 13-year-old female presenting peduncular hallucinosis due to brainstem compression by a pineocytoma. The patient had a 3-month history of complex visual hallucination and slight somnolence. The hallucination mainly consisted of TV game characters, animals, and vegetables which were colorful and vivid. She was well oriented and realized that the hallucination was not real. MRI showed a pineal mass compressing the quadrigeminal plate inferiorly. There was mild obstructive hydrocephalus due to aqueduct stenosis. The tumor was totally removed and was pathologically diagnosed as pineocytoma. After the surgery, the hallucination ameliorated remarkably. Although the administration of benzodiazepine exacerbated the hallucination and sleep disorder, oral carbamazepine was clearly effective and produced nearly complete disappearance of hallucination. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of peduncular hallucinosis caused by quadrigeminal plate compression by a pineal tumor.

Delusions, illusions and hallucinations in epilepsy: 2. Complex phenomena and psychosis.

In this second paper the clinical features and electrophysiological underpinnings of more complex psychotic states associated with epilepsy are reviewed. (a) Complex partial status epilepticus, in particular of temporal lobe origin, may result in mental states remarkably similar to those seen in the primary psychoses. This non-convulsive state is associated with prolonged epileptic discharges on intracranial stereoelectroencephalography (SEEG) in hippocampal and other mesial temporal structures, sometimes without abnormalities on the scalp EEG. Where hallucinatory or psychotic symptomatology does occurs, it can be considered an examples of an ictal psychosis. The phenomenology and electrophysiological features of this condition are reviewed. (b) Postictal psychosis is noted for its similarity to schizophrenia-like/paranoid and affective psychoses and there is convincing SEEG evidence that, for some cases at least, the psychosis is not in fact postictal but rather an ictal psychosis due to ongoing limbic seizure activity and a form of non-convulsive status epilepticus. It has been suggested that postictal psychosis should be divided into two sub-groups: the classical 'nuclear' postictal type and an atypical periictal type. (c) Interictal hallucinosis in epilepsy has been poorly studied, but is probably commoner than appreciated. To what extent it represents subclinical epileptic discharges (i.e. auras) is not known. It may interestingly also be associated with abnormal affective states in epilepsy. (d) The interictal psychosis of epilepsy is often indistinguishable from primary schizophrenia. It occurs more commonly in temporal lobe (limbic) epilepsy, in those with frequent seizures and only in patients with a long history of epilepsy (usually over 10 years). There is convincing SEEG evidence of frequent, semi-continuous and sometimes continuous epileptic activity in limbic structures at the time of psychotic and hallucinatory ideation and behaviour, suggesting that in some cases at least, the epileptic activity is the cause of the symptoms. Whether the psychosis is directly 'driven' by subclinical electrographic activity or is indirectly a consequence of function change induced by such activity is not clear. An intriguing question also arises as to whether similar electrophysiological changes could underpin psychosis in patients without epilepsy but evidence on this point is sparse. The effects of temporal lobe surgery on the psychoses of epilepsy are described and these might throw light on the mechanisms of epileptic psychosis. The principles of pharmacological therapy of epileptic hallucinosis and psychosis are outlined.