Comparative study of different forms of Jellein antimicrobial peptide on Leishmania parasite.

Typically, antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are short positive charged peptides serving a key role in innate immunity as well as antimicrobial activity. Discovering novel therapeutic agents is considered as an undeniable demand due to increasing microbial species with antibiotic resistance. In this direction, the unique ability of AMPs to modulate immune responses highlighted them as novel drug candidates in the field of microbiology. Patients affected by leishmaniasis; a neglected tropical disease, confront serious problems for their treatment including resistance to common drugs as well as toxicity and high cost of therapy. So, there is a need for development of new drug candidates to control the diseases. Jellein, a peptide derived from royal jelly of honeybee has been shown to have promising effect against several bacterial and fungal species. In current study, anti-leishmanial effect of Jellein and its lauric acid conjugated form was investigated against two forms of Leishmania major (L. major) parasite. Moreover, cytotoxic effect of these peptides was studied in THP1 cell line and human Red Blood Cells (RBCs). Furthermore, the mechanism of action of peptides on L. major promastigotes was assessed through different methods. The results demonstrated that, conjugation of lauric acid to Jellein not only had no effect on the elevation of antimicrobial activity but also halted it completely. Moreover, Jellein caused a limitation in the number of L. major promastigotes by pore formation as well as changing the membrane potential rather than induction of apoptosis or activation of caspases.

Soluble CD74 Reroutes MIF/CXCR4/AKT-Mediated Survival of Cardiac Myofibroblasts to Necroptosis.

Background Although macrophage migration inhibitory factor ( MIF ) has been demonstrated to mediate cardioprotection in ischemia/reperfusion injury and antagonize fibrotic effects through its receptor, CD 74, the function of the soluble CD 74 receptor ectodomain ( sCD 74) and its interaction with circulating MIF have not been explored in cardiac disease. Methods and Results Cardiac fibroblasts were isolated from hearts of neonatal mice and differentiated into myofibroblasts. Co-treatment with recombinant MIF and sCD 74 induced cell death ( P<0.001), which was mediated by receptor-interacting serine/threonine-protein kinase ( RIP) 1/ RIP 3-dependent necroptosis ( P=0.0376). This effect was specific for cardiac fibroblasts and did not affect cardiomyocytes. Gene expression analyses using microarray and RT - qPCR technology revealed a 4-fold upregulation of several interferon-induced genes upon co-treatment of myofibroblasts with sCD 74 and MIF (Ifi44: P=0.011; Irg1: P=0.022; Clec4e: P=0.011). Furthermore, Western blot analysis confirmed the role of sCD 74 as a modulator of MIF signaling by diminishing MIF -mediated protein kinase B ( AKT) activation ( P=0.0197) and triggering p38 activation ( P=0.0641). We obtained evidence that sCD 74 inhibits MIF -mediated survival pathway through the C-X-C chemokine receptor 4/ AKT axis, enabling the induction of CD 74-dependent necroptotic processes in cardiac myofibroblasts. Preliminary clinical data revealed a lowered sCD 74/ MIF ratio in heart failure patients (17.47±10.09 versus 1.413±0.6244). Conclusions These findings suggest that treatment of cardiac myofibroblasts with sCD 74 and MIF induces necroptosis, offering new insights into the mechanism of myofibroblast depletion during scar maturation. Preliminary clinical data provided first evidence about a clinical relevance of the sCD 74/ MIF axis in heart failure, suggesting that these proteins may be a promising target to modulate cardiac remodeling and disease progression in heart failure.

Exogenous Thyropin from p41 Invariant Chain Diminishes Cysteine Protease Activity and Affects IL-12 Secretion during Maturation of Human Dendritic Cells.

Dendritic cells (DC) play a pivotal role as antigen presenting cells (APC) and their maturation is crucial for effectively eliciting an antigen-specific immune response. The p41 splice variant of MHC class II-associated chaperone, called invariant chain p41 Ii, contains an amino acid sequence, the p41 fragment, which is a thyropin-type inhibitor of proteolytic enzymes. The effects of exogenous p41 fragment and related thyropin inhibitors acting on human immune cells have not been reported yet. In this study we demonstrate that exogenous p41 fragment can enter the endocytic pathway of targeted human immature DC. Internalized p41 fragment has contributed to the total amount of the immunogold labelled p41 Ii-specific epitope, as quantified by transmission electron microscopy, in particular in late endocytic compartments with multivesicular morphology where antigen processing and binding to MHC II take place. In cell lysates of treated immature DC, diminished enzymatic activity of cysteine proteases has been confirmed. Internalized exogenous p41 fragment did not affect the perinuclear clustering of acidic cathepsin S-positive vesicles typical of mature DC. p41 fragment is shown to interfere with the nuclear translocation of NF-κB p65 subunit in LPS-stimulated DC. p41 fragment is also shown to reduce the secretion of interleukin-12 (IL-12/p70) during the subsequent maturation of treated DC. The inhibition of proteolytic activity of lysosomal cysteine proteases in immature DC and the diminished capability of DC to produce IL-12 upon their subsequent maturation support the immunomodulatory potential of the examined thyropin from p41 Ii.

Porcine CD74 is involved in the inflammatory response activated by nuclear factor kappa B during porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV-2) infection.

Human CD74 induces a signalling cascade that results in the activation of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB); however, porcine CD74 has not been widely studied. In this study, we show that porcine CD74 is mainly expressed in cells of the macrophage lineage and can be induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS), polyinosinic acid-polycytidylic acid [Poly(I:C)], and infection with porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) in vitro. In addition, we confirmed that porcine CD74 can activate NF-κB by promoting IκBα degradation and nuclear translocation of p65. Furthermore, the transcription of NF-κB-regulated genes [Interleukin-6 (IL-6), Interleukin-8 (IL-8), and COX-2] was upregulated in response to the overexpression of porcine CD74. In general, porcine CD74 significantly enhanced the inflammatory response by regulating the NF-κB signalling pathway during PCV2 infection, which suggests that porcine CD74 may be implicated in the pathogenesis of PCV2 infection.

Bm-CPI-2, a cystatin homolog secreted by the filarial parasite Brugia malayi, inhibits class II MHC-restricted antigen processing.

While interference with the class I MHC pathway by pathogen-encoded gene products, especially those of viruses, has been well documented, few examples of specific interference with the MHC class II pathway have been reported. Potential targets for such interference are the proteases that remove the invariant chain chaperone and generate antigenic peptides. Indeed, recent studies indicate that immature dendritic cells express cystatin C to modulate cysteine protease activity and the expression of class II MHC molecules [1]. Here, we show that Bm-CPI-2, a recently discovered cystatin homolog produced by the filarial nematode parasite Brugia malayi (W. F. Gregory et al., submitted), inhibits multiple cysteine protease activities found in the endosomes/lysosomes of human B lymphocyte lines. CPI-2 blocked the hydrolysis of synthetic substrates favored by two different families of lysosomal cysteine proteases and blocked the in vitro processing of the tetanus toxin antigen by purified lysosome fractions. Moreover, CPI-2 substantially inhibited the presentation of selected T cell epitopes from tetanus toxin by living antigen-presenting cells. Our studies provide the first example of a product from a eukaryotic parasite that can directly interfere with antigen presentation, which, in turn, may suggest how filarial parasites might inactivate the host immune response to a helminth invader.

Design and synthesis of a multivalent homing device for targeting to murine CD22.

CD22 is a cell-surface glycoprotein uniquely located on mature B-cells and B-cell derived tumour cells. Current evidence suggests that binding of endogenous ligands to CD22 leads to modulation of B-cell activation by antigen. Incidentally, however, B-cell activation may derail. and lead to an undesired immune response, for example in cases of allergy, rheumatoid arthritis and Crohn's disease. In this situation, synthetic high-affinity ligands for CD22 may be of therapeutic value as inhibitors of B-cell activation. Recent studies have revealed that natural ligands for CD22 contain the trisaccharide NeuAc alpha-2,6-Lac as the basic binding motif. In addition, it has been demonstrated that binding to CD22 is strongly enhanced by multivalent presentation of the basic binding motif (cluster effect). In this paper. the stepwise development of a novel multivalent high-affinity ligand for CD22 is described. In the first stage, a series of monovalent NeuAc alpha-2,6-Glc(Y)X type binding motifs was prepared, and their affinity for murine CD22 was monitored, to obtain more insight into the effect of separate structure elements on ligand recognition. In the second stage, we prepared a trivalent cluster, based on the monovalent motif that displayed the highest affinity for CD22, NeuAc alpha-2,6-GlcNBzNO2OMe (7). This cluster, TRIS(NeuAc alpha-2,6-GlcNBzNO2)3 (52), displayed a more than 58-fold higher affinity for CD22 than the reference structure NeuAc alpha-2,6-LacOMe (10). To our knowledge, the cluster 52 is one of the most potent antagonists for CD22 yet synthesised.

Upregulation of interleukin-10 and inhibition of alloantigen responses by transferrin and transferrin-derived glycans.

Previous studies have shown that critically timed administration of transferrin (Tf) facilitates induction of immunologic unresponsiveness. Here, we determined in mixed leukocyte culture (MLC) and in concanavalin A (ConA)-driven cultures the effect of exogenous Tf and Tf-derived glycans (Tf-Gly) on lymphocyte proliferation. In cultures of human blood lymphocytes, Tf inhibited selectively alloantigen-driven proliferation in MLC, but not ConA-stimulated lymphocyte proliferation. Deglycosylation of Tf abrogated the inhibitory effect of Tf on alloantigen-induced lymphocyte proliferation, and, consistent with a role for glycans, an effect qualitatively and quantitatively similar to Tf was exerted by purified Tf-Gly. Glycans isolated from other proteins, for example, immunoglobulin G (IgG) or fibrinogen, failed to inhibit alloantigen-induced proliferation selectively. Rather, they suppressed lymphocyte proliferation in a non-specific manner. Determination of cytokines in MLC supernatant showed a downregulation of interleukin-1beta (IL-1beta), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), IL-2, and IL-12 (p40), along with an upregulation of IL-10, a pattern entirely consistent with the observed effects of Tf and Tf-Gly on alloantigen-induced lymphocyte proliferation. The effect of Tf on MLC was directly IL-10-dependent. IL-10 levels were inversely correlated with lymphocyte proliferation and CD86 expression. Neutralization of IL-10 by anti-IL-10 monoclonal antibody (mAb) blocked the effect of Tf. The MLC-modulating effect of Tf (or Tf-Gly) was not dependent upon the Tf receptor CD71 but appeared to be mediated by a Gly-responsive receptor. These data suggest a role of Tf, and, in particular, Tf-Gly, in allo-interactions that is independent from the role of Tf in iron metabolism, and appears to involve co-stimulatory signals.

A fragment of the major histocompatibility complex class II-associated p41 invariant chain inhibits cruzipain, the major cysteine proteinase from Trypanosoma cruzi.

A peptide fragment derived from the p41 form of the invariant chain (Ii) associated with the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II molecule has been shown to inhibit the mammalian lysosomal cysteine proteinase, cathepsin L, and to be a novel cysteine proteinase inhibitor, distinct from cystatins. Here we report that this same fragment also binds to and inhibits cruzipain, the cathepsin L-like enzyme from the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma cruzi. The binding of the Ii fragment to cruzipain is fast (k(ass) = 2.4 x 10(7) M(-1) s(-1) and tight (Ki = 5.8 x 10(-11) M). The inhibition is competitive. These results suggest the possibility of using the invariant chain as a model for the specific inhibition of cruzipain in vivo, i.e. as a potential drug to combat Chagas' disease.

Antigen receptor-mediated B cell death is blocked by signaling via CD72 or treatment with dextran sulfate and is defective in autoimmunity-prone mice.

Mature B cells undergo programmed cell death when surface (s) Ig is extensively multimerized. A signal that blocks death of B cells is thus required for activation of B cells in response to antigen stimulation. Here we show that only a few diverse transmembrane signals capable of inducing activation and proliferation of B cells blocked sig-mediated death of normal mature B cells, and that there is no correlation between mitogenic activity and the ability to rescue B cells from death. The results suggest that a specific signal is required for abrogating B cell death induced by sig cross-linking. Signaling via IL-4 receptor and CD40, both of which are derived from activated T cells, blocked sig-mediated death, as described previously. Signaling through a B cell antigen CD72, a counter-receptor of the pan-T antigen CD5, also blocked death of anti-Ig-treated mouse spleen B cells. CD72 signal may play a role in survival of B cells at the initial step of T-B interaction, where resting T cells recognize antigens presented by B cells. Moreover, B cell death by anti-Ig was blocked by T cell-independent antigens such as lipopolysaccharide and dextran sulfate, and spleen B cells from New Zealand mice, which are prone to autoantibody-dependent autoimmune diseases, were resistant to sig-mediated death. Mechanisms for blocking sig-mediated death may therefore be required in antibody response to foreign antigens regardless of T independence or T dependence and in autoantibody production.

Major histocompatibility complex class II-associated p41 invariant chain fragment is a strong inhibitor of lysosomal cathepsin L.

The invariant chain (Ii) is associated with major histocompatibility complex class II molecules during early stages of their intracellular transport. In an acidic endosomal/lysosomal compartment, it is proteolytically cleaved and removed from class II heterodimers. Participation of aspartic and cysteine proteases has been observed in in vitro degradation of Ii, but the specific enzymes responsible for its in vivo processing are as yet undefined. We have previously isolated a noncovalent complex of the lysosomal cysteine protease cathepsin L with a peptide fragment derived from the p41 form of Ii from human kidney. Here we show that this Ii fragment, which is identical to the alternatively spliced segment of p41, is a very potent competitive inhibitor of cathepsin L (equilibrium inhibition constant Ki = 1.7 X 10(-12) M). It inhibits two other cysteine proteases, cathepsin H and papain, but to much lesser extent. Cysteine proteases cathepsins B, C, and S, as well as representatives of serine, aspartic, and metalloproteases, are not inhibited at all. These findings suggest a novel role for p41 in the regulation of various proteolytic activities during antigen processing and presentation. The Ii inhibitory fragment shows no sequence homology with the known cysteine protease inhibitors, and may, therefore, represent a new class.

Presentation of endogenous viral proteins in association with major histocompatibility complex class II: on the role of intracellular compartmentalization, invariant chain and the TAP transporter system.

Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II-associated antigen presentation is mainly linked to processing of exogenous antigens upon cellular uptake by endocytosis, but has also been observed for endogenously synthesized antigens. We have studied the MHC class II-associated presentation of the endogenously synthesized membrane associated glycoprotein (GP) and the cytosolic nucleoprotein (NP) of lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) in professional antigen presenting cells (APC) of mice. Since LCMV is a noncytopathic virus and minimally affects cellular protein synthesis, it is a convenient virus for the study of antigen presentation. In contrast, most other studies assessing class II-associated presentation of endogeneously synthesized viral antigens used cytolytic viruses such as vaccinia, measles and influenza virus, which drastically interfere with host cell functions. In addition, most studies were performed using non-professional APC. We found that class II-associated presentation of endogenously synthesized membrane associated LCMV-GP was efficient and could not be inhibited by chloroquine or leupeptin. Neither the transporter associated with processing (TAP) system nor the invariant chain (Ii) were significantly involved in this process. In contrast, MHC class II-associated presentation of endogenously synthesized cytosolic LCMV-NP was not observed even in Ii-deficient APC. Thus, MHC class II loading of endogenously synthesized LCMV-GP apparently does not require processing in acidic endosomal compartments as defined by chloroquine and leupeptin insensitivity. Furthermore, although the TAP molecules transport peptides of up to 15 amino acids in length, which potentially could bind to MHC class II molecules in the endoplasmic reticulum, such a process apparently does not occur for either the glycoprotein or the nucleoprotein. Therefore, the subcellular localization of an endogenously synthesized protein influences crucially whether or not MHC class II loading can occur independently of the acidic compartments usually involved in MHC class II loading.

An anti-CD72 immunotoxin against therapy-refractory B-lineage acute lymphoblastic leukemia.

CD72 is a broadly expressed B-lineage specific surface antigen. We used J3-109(anti-CD72) monoclonal antibody to examine primary neoplastic cells from patients with acute leukemia for CD72 expression. CD72 was present at high levels in 70 of 100 B-lineage acute lymphoblastic leukemias (ALL), but it was not expressed on cells from 23 T-lineage ALL patients or 9 acute myeloblastic leukemia patients. We have prepared an anti-CD72 immunotoxin by conjugating J3-109 monoclonal antibody to the ribosome-inactivating protein, PAP.J3-109-PAP effectively killed > 99.9% of clonogenic blasts from a CD72+ B-lineage ALL cell line. We used a SCID mouse model of aggressive human pre-B ALL to evaluate the in vivo anti-leukemic efficacy of the J3-109-PAP immunotoxin. An intravenous challenge with 1 x 10(6) NALM-6-UM-1(pre-B ALL) cells caused 100% of SCID mice to die of disseminated leukemia within 41 days. Importantly, a three-day treatment with non-toxic doses of J3-109-PAP significantly improved event-free survival of SCID mice. The Kaplan-Meier estimate (+/- standard error) of the probability of event-free survival at 2 months after inoculation of NALM-6-UM-1 cells was 40 +/- 16% for SCID mice treated with a total of 15 micrograms J3-109-PAP (median survival = 58 days) as compared to 0 +/- 0% for PBS treated mice (median survival = 34 days). At 6 months after the inoculation of NALM-6-UM-1 cells, 10 +/- 9% of the J3-109-PAP treated SCID mice were still alive with no evidence of leukemia.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Tumor necrosis factor-alpha facilitates induction of CD80 (B7-1) and CD54 on human B cells by activated T cells: complex regulation by IL-4, IL-10, and CD40L.

Expression of immune accessory molecules, such as CD80 (B7-1), on antigen-presenting cells governs whether such cells can activate antigen-specific T cells. As such, the factors that regulate the expression of these accessory molecules may determine whether presentation of antigen leads to immune activation or anergy. We previously reported that anti-CD3-activated T cells (Ta) can induce expression of CD80 and CD54 (ICAM-1) on human B cells through a contact-dependent signal delivered to the CD40 molecule via the CD40 ligand. Here, we demonstrate that another molecule in the CD40-ligand family, namely tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), also plays a role in the Ta-mediated induction of CD80 or CD54 on human B cells. Neutralizing mAbs specific for TNF-alpha can inhibit B cell expression of CD80 or CD54 that is induced when B cells are cultured with Ta cells or in Ta-cell conditioned media. Moreover, soluble, recombinant TNF-alpha or TNF-beta can induce significant increases in B cell expression of CD80 and CD54. The phenotypic changes effected by TNF-alpha can be recapitulated by crosslinking CD120b (p75 TNF-receptor), but not CD120a (p55 TNF-receptor), with mAbs presented on Fc gamma RII (CD32)-expressing L cells. IL-4 augments the expression of CD80 induced by crosslinking either CD40 or CD120b. However, although IL-10 augments CD40-induced expression of CD80, this cytokine inhibits the expression of CD80 that is induced by crosslinking CD120b. Further regulation of TNF-mediated CD80 expression may occur at the level of CD120b expression itself. We find that stimulation with exogenous IL-4 or CD40-cross-linking induces B cell expression of CD120b, but not CD120a. This study identifies an ancillary, TNF-mediated pathway, whereby activated T cells can induce B cells to express enhanced levels of the important costimulatory molecules, CD80 and CD54.

Autologous bone marrow transplantation for myeloma patients using PNA- and CD19-purged marrow rescue.

A new method of in vitro bone marrow purging using a lectin and monoclonal antibody in combination has been used for the first time in vivo. Two patients with advanced myeloma were treated with high-dose melphalan and total body irradiation and then rescued with autologous bone marrow which had been purged in vitro to remove malignant cells by using a combination of a plasma cell-binding lectin (peanut agglutinin, PNA) and the anti-B lymphocyte monoclonal antibody anti-CD19, bound to magnetised microspheres. Both patients showed rapid engraftment of the purged bone marrow and remain well 36 and 46 months later with normal bone marrow morphology, although one patient still has a low level of circulating paraprotein. This is a promising form of therapy for what has been an invariably fatal condition.

In vitro regulation of B cell differentiation by interleukin-6 and soluble CD23 in systemic lupus erythematosus B cell subpopulations and antigen-induced normal B cells.

Polyreactive systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) B cells were compared with antigen-induced SLE and normal B cells for their interleukin-6 (IL-6) and soluble CD23 requirements. Unlike normal B cells, secretion of antibody by SLE B cells in serum-free medium was not enhanced by exogenous IL-6. Anti-IL-6 antibodies inhibited immunoglobulin production in cultures of normal and SLE B cells, which suggests that IL-6 is required for B cell differentiation. SLE culture supernatants had elevated levels of IL-6, which explains the poor response of the SLE cells to exogenous IL-6. Soluble CD23 enhanced the responses of cells from normal subjects and SLE patients.

Proliferation of early human myeloid precursors induced by interleukin-1 and recombinant soluble CD23.

Low affinity Fc epsilon receptors (Fc epsilon RII/CD23) or their soluble fragments have various biologic effects on B- and T-cell lineages. In this study, we have assessed the effect of recombinant soluble CD23 (rsCD23) on the proliferation of human bone marrow (BM)-derived myeloid precursors with or without recombinant interleukin-1 (rIL-1) addition. Non-adherent CD2- or CD34+ BM cell subsets were used as target cells. Our results show that rsCD23 in synergy with rIL-1 displays an interleukin-3-like activity as it promotes the proliferation of multipotential marrow precursors. This effect was abolished by anti-CD23 addition to these cultures, but was not affected by anti-IL-3 monoclonal antibody. Furthermore, sequential study indicates that rIL-1 induces bone marrow cell responsiveness to rsCD23.

Production of the haemopoietic growth factors GM-CSF and interleukin-3 by mast cells in response to IgE receptor-mediated activation.

Mast cells have a central role in allergic diseases mediated by specific immunoglobulin E antibody responses to allergens. The binding of IgE to the high-affinity receptor for IgE (Fc epsilon R) on mast cells and basophils enables these cells to react specifically to allergens. Such contact leads to the activation of mast cells and the release of histamine and other pharmacological mediators, causing an immediate hypersensitivity and acute inflammatory reactions, accompanied by the development of allergic symptoms. Here we show that Fc epsilon R-mediated activation of murine mast cells results in the production of the haemopoietic growth factors granulocyte/macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) and interleukin-3 (IL-3). IL-3 and GM-CSF, in addition to their role in bone marrow haemopoiesis, also influence inflammation as they have the capacity to recruit, prime and activate inflammatory cells such as neutrophils, macrophages and eosinophils. Secretion of these factors by mast cells in response to allergens may therefore have an important role in local tissue defense.